Lithium metal battery
Non-rechargeable primary battery using metallic lithium as anode.
Lithium metal batteries are primary, non-rechargeable cells that use metallic lithium as their anode. The name highlights the presence of lithium metal, setting them apart from rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, which rely on lithiated metal oxides for the cathode. While most lithium metal batteries are disposable, rechargeable versions are being developed. Since 2007, dangerous goods regulations have classified them separately from lithium-ion batteries under UN 3090.
These batteries stand out for their high energy density and high cost per unit. Depending on the chemistry and design, they can deliver voltages ranging from 1.5 V—comparable to alkaline or zinc-carbon cells—up to about 3.7 V. Unlike rechargeable lithium-ion or lithium-polymer batteries, which contain no metallic lithium, lithium metal batteries use pure lithium as the anode. This pure lithium reacts instantly with water or even moisture in the air, whereas the lithium in rechargeable types is a less reactive compound.
The term "lithium battery" covers a family of chemistries, all sharing metallic lithium as the anode but varying in cathode and electrolyte materials. These primary systems use a charged cathode with crystallographic vacancies that fill gradually during discharge. They require 0.15 to 0.3 kg of lithium per kilowatt-hour. The most common consumer type uses metallic lithium as the anode, manganese dioxide as the cathode, and a lithium salt dissolved in an organic solvent as the electrolyte.
Researchers at the University of California San Diego have developed an electrolyte that allows lithium batteries to operate at temperatures as low as -60 °C, and electrochemical capacitors down to -80 °C, improving on the previous low-temperature limit of -40 °C while maintaining high performance at room temperature. This could enhance energy density and safety.
Lithium batteries are used in long-life, critical devices like pacemakers and other implantable medical electronics, where specialized lithium-iodide batteries can last 15 years or more. In less critical applications like toys, the battery may outlast the device, making the higher cost less justifiable. They can replace ordinary alkaline cells in clocks and cameras, offering longer life and fewer replacements, but their higher voltage must be considered before use in devices designed for zinc cells. In oceanography, lithium packs
- type
- Primary (non-rechargeable) battery
- anode_material
- Metallic lithium
- voltage_range
- 1.5 V to 3.7 V
- common_chemistry
- Lithium-manganese dioxide
- lithium_per_kWh
- 0.15 to 0.3 kg
- un_designation
- UN 3090 (since 2007)
Lore & Background
Lithium metal batteries are defined by the use of metallic lithium as the anode, which instantly reacts with water or moisture in the air. The most common consumer type uses manganese dioxide as the cathode and a lithium salt dissolved in an organic solvent as the electrolyte. These batteries are designed with a charged cathode that has crystallographic vacancies filled gradually during discharge.
Since 2007, Dangerous Goods Regulations have differentiated lithium metal batteries (UN 3090) from lithium-ion batteries (UN 3480). Researchers at the University of California San Diego have developed an electrolyte chemistry that allows lithium batteries to operate at temperatures as low as -60 °C, improving on the previous low-temperature limit of -40 °C.
Lithium metal batteries are used in pacemakers and other implantable medical devices, where specialized lithium-iodide batteries can last 15 or more years. They also find application in oceanographic instrumentation, where their higher capacity (up to three times that of alkaline packs) justifies the higher cost due to the expense of servicing remote equipment.
Reader's Guide
Lithium metal batteries represent a distinct category of primary batteries that have been critical in powering portable electronics and life-saving medical devices. Their high energy density and ability to maintain voltage over long periods make them ideal for applications where battery replacement is difficult or costly. However, their high cost and safety concerns—including risks of overheating, rupture, and explosion when short-circuited—have led to strict regulations on air transport and handling. The introduction of UN 3090 classification in 2007 formalized the distinction from lithium-ion batteries. While they account for 28% of primary battery sales in Japan, they represent only 0.5% of all battery sales in the EU, indicating regional variation in adoption. Ongoing research, such as the development of low-temperature electrolytes, continues to expand their potential applications. The safety issues, particularly regarding ingestion of button cell batteries and their use in illegal methamphetamine production, have prompted regulatory and retail restrictions. Despite these challenges, lithium metal batteries remain essential for devices requiring reliable, long-lasting power.
Did You Know?
- Lithium metal batteries are nonrechargeable and use metallic lithium as the anode, distinguishing them from rechargeable lithium-ion batteries.
- The most common consumer lithium cell uses metallic lithium as the anode and manganese dioxide as the cathode.
- Lithium metal batteries can produce voltages from 1.5 V to about 3.7 V depending on design and chemical compounds.
- Since 2007, Dangerous Goods Regulations differentiate lithium metal batteries (UN 3090) from lithium-ion batteries (UN 3480).
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