Seven Years' War

The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involved several major powers, with Great Britain and Prussia on one side, and France and Austria on the other. Additional participants included Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Russia, Saxony, and various smaller states of the Holy Roman Empire. The conflict ended with Prussia holding onto Silesia, which elevated it to a great power and upset the old balance of power in Europe, as it now rivaled Austria for influence in Germany. Meanwhile, France gave up its North American territories, and Britain strengthened its commercial hold over India.

The war grew out of dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the War of the Austrian Succession but pleased no one. This led to a major shift in alliances—the Diplomatic Revolution—which broke the long-standing rivalry between Austria and France. After signing the Treaty of Versailles in 1756, the two declared war on Britain; a second agreement in 1757 brought Prussia in on Britain’s side. Spain joined France in 1762, but its invasion of Portugal failed, and Britain captured Havana and Manila. These were returned under the Treaty of Paris in 1763, though France lost its North American holdings.

In Europe, the fighting centered on Austria’s attempt to reclaim Silesia. The Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763) confirmed Prussian control of the region and its new status as a major power.

**Background**

In North America, the border between British and French claims was unclear in the 1750s. France claimed the entire Mississippi basin, which Britain disputed. Starting in the early 1750s, France built forts in the Ohio River Valley to reinforce its claim and protect Native Americans from British influence. British settlers, worried about French troops near their western borders, feared the French would encourage native attacks. They also wanted the fertile Ohio Valley for the many new settlers arriving.

The key French fort was planned at the Forks of the Ohio (modern Pittsburgh). Peaceful protests failed, and the French built Fort Duquesne there. British colonial militia from Virginia, led by George Washington and accompanied by Chief Tanacharison and a few Mingo warriors, ambushed a small French force at Jumonville Glen on May 28, 1754, killing ten, including commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonville. The French retaliated by attacking Washington at Fort Necessity on July 3, 1754, forcing his surrender. These were the first clashes of what became the global war.

Britain and France did not negotiate after learning of the fighting. Both sent regular troops to North America. The first British action was the assault on Acadia on June 16, 1755, at the Battle of Fort Beauséjour, followed by the expulsion of the Acadians. In July, Major General Edward Braddock led about 2,000 regulars and militia to retake Fort Duquesne, but the expedition ended in disaster. In June 1755, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship *Alcide*, capturing it and two troop ships. In September, British and French forces fought the inconclusive Battle of Lake George.

The British navy harassed French shipping from August 1755, seizing hundreds of ships and thousands of merchant seamen, even though the two nations were still at peace. Angered, France prepared to attack Hanover, whose prince-elector was also the British king. Britain then made a treaty with Prussia, which agreed to protect Hanover. In response, France allied with its old enemy Austria—the Diplomatic Revolution.

In Europe, during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), Prussia’s Frederick II had seized Silesia from Austria. Empress Maria Theresa signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 to buy time to rebuild her forces and form new alliances. That earlier war had seen traditional alignments: Britain and Austria against France, with Prussia backed by France. But neither side was happy: British subsidies to Austria yielded little, and Britain’s efforts didn’t save Silesia. Prussia, after securing Silesia, made peace with Austria, ignoring French interests. Still, France made a defensive alliance with Prussia in 1747, and British secretary of state the Duke of Newcastle considered the Anglo-Austrian alliance essential after 1748. Its collapse, and the new pairing of France with Austria and Britain with Prussia, is known as the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756. In 1756, Austria waged war.