Russian Revolution
A period of revolution and civil war that ended monarchy and established socialist rule.
In 1917, Russia entered a turbulent era of political and social upheaval. Over the next several years, the country dismantled its monarchy and established a socialist government, driven by two revolutions and a subsequent civil war. This upheaval set the stage for similar revolts after World War I, including the German Revolution of 1918–1919, and stands as a defining moment of the 20th century.
The revolution began with the February Revolution, which erupted while World War I was still raging. German forces were beating Russia on the front lines, and supply breakdowns led to shortages of bread and grain. The Russian army’s morale collapsed, and mutiny seemed imminent. Officials believed that if Tsar Nicholas II stepped down, the unrest might calm. He abdicated on March 15 (March 2 by the old calendar), and a provisional government, led by the Duma (the parliament), took over. Meanwhile, local councils called Soviets formed in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg). At first, these Soviets did not oppose the new government, but they insisted on having a say in governance and control over local militias. By March, Russia had two competing authorities: the Provisional Government handled military and foreign affairs, while the Soviets managed domestic matters. Crucially, the Soviets had the loyalty of the working class and urban middle class. Mutinies, protests, and strikes spread. Various leftist groups—Mensheviks, Socialist Revolutionaries, Anarchists, and the Bolsheviks (a far-left party led by Vladimir Lenin)—vied for influence within both the Provisional Government and the Soviets.
The Bolsheviks gained popularity by promising peace, land, and bread: an end to the war, land for peasants, and an end to famine. The Provisional Government, however, kept fighting the war despite public opposition. This helped the Bolsheviks and other factions win more support. When the government cracked down on protesters in Petrograd during the July Days, the Bolsheviks merged loyal workers’ militias into the Red Guards. The situation reached a breaking point with the October Revolution, a Bolshevik armed uprising in Petrograd on November 7 (October 25 by the old calendar) that toppled the Provisional Government. The Bolsheviks then formed their own government and declared the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). German military pressure forced them to move the capital to Moscow. The RSFSR began transforming the former empire into the world’s first socialist state, aiming to practice soviet democracy nationally and internationally. They fulfilled their promise to exit World War I by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918. To secure their rule, they created the Cheka, a secret police force that hunted down and eliminated those labeled “enemies of the people” in campaigns known as the Red Terror.
Though the Bolsheviks had strong urban support, they faced enemies both foreign and domestic who refused to accept their government. A bloody civil war erupted, pitting the Reds (Bolsheviks) against nationalist movements, anti-Bolshevik socialists, anarchists, monarchists, and liberals. The latter two groups largely backed the White movement, led by right-leaning officers who sought to restore the old imperial order. Bolshevik commissar Leon Trotsky organized loyal workers’ militias into the Red Army. While key battles took place in Moscow and Petrograd, every city in the empire—including provinces of national minorities—was in turmoil, and peasants in rural areas seized and redistributed land.
As the civil war progressed, the RSFSR extended Soviet power into Armenia, Azerbaijan, Byelorussia, Georgia, and Ukraine. Wartime unity and foreign intervention pushed these nations to unify under a single flag, creating the Soviet Union. Historians mark the end of the revolutionary period in 1922, when the civil war ended with the defeat of the White Army and separatist groups, prompting mass emigration from Russia. The victorious Bolshevik Party renamed itself the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and held power for the next six decades.
- Start Year
- 1917
- End Year
- 1922
- Location
- Russia (primarily Petrograd and Moscow)
- Key Figures
- Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Tsar Nicholas II
- Outcome
- Abolition of monarchy; establishment of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist
- Major Events
- February Revolution, October Revolution, Russian Civil War
Verified Timeline
Lore & Background
The Russian Revolution was inaugurated with the February Revolution in 1917, in the midst of World War I. With the German Empire inflicting defeats on the front, and increasing logistical problems causing shortages of bread and grain, the Russian Army was losing morale, with large scale mutiny looming. Officials were convinced that if Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, the unrest would subside. Nicholas stepped down on 15 March [O.S. 2 March], ushering in a provisional government led by the Duma. During the unrest, Soviet councils were formed by locals in Petrograd that initially did not oppose the new government; however, the Soviets insisted on their influence in the government and control over militias. By March, Russia had two rival governments. The Provisional Government held state power in military and international affairs, whereas the network of Soviets held domestic power. Critically, the Soviets held the allegiance of the working class, and urban middle class. There were mutinies, protests and strikes. Socialist and other leftist political organizations competed for influence within the Provisional Government and Soviets. Factions included the Mensheviks, Socialist Revolutionaries, Anarchists, and the Bolsheviks, a far-left party led by Vladimir Lenin.
Reader's Guide
The Bolsheviks won popularity with their program promising peace, land, and bread: an end to the war, land for the peasantry, and ending famine. After assuming power, the Provisional Government continued fighting the war in spite of public opposition. Taking advantage, the Bolsheviks and other factions gained popular support to advance the revolution. Responding to discontent in Petrograd, the Provisional Government repressed protestors leading to the July Days. The Bolsheviks merged workers' militias loyal to them into the Red Guards. The volatile situation reached its climax with the October Revolution, a Bolshevik armed insurrection in Petrograd beginning 7 November [O.S. 25 October] that overthrew the Provisional Government. The Bolsheviks established their own government and proclaimed the establishment of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). Under pressure from German military offensives, the Bolsheviks relocated the capital to Moscow. The RSFSR began reorganizing the empire into the world's first socialist state, to practice soviet democracy on a national and international scale. Their promise to end Russia's participation in World War I was fulfilled when Bolshevik leaders signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918. The Bolsheviks established the Cheka, a secret police and revolutionary security service working to uncover, punish, and eliminate those considered to be 'enemies of the people' in campaigns called the Red Terror. Although the Bolsheviks held large support in urban areas, they had foreign and domestic enemies that refused to recognize their government. Russia erupted into a bloody civil war, which pitted the Reds (Bolsheviks), against their enemies, which included nationalist movements, anti-Bolshevik socialist parties, anarchists, monarchists and liberals; the latter two parties strongly supported the Russian White movement which was led mainly by right-leaning officers and seen as fighting for the restoration of the imperial order. The Bolshevik commissar Leon Trotsky began organizing workers' militias loyal to the Bolsheviks into the Red Army. While key events occurred in Moscow and Petrograd, every city in the empire was convulsed, including the provinces of national minorities, and in the rural areas peasants took over and redistributed land. As the war progressed, the RSFSR established Soviet power in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Byelorussia, Georgia, and Ukraine. Wartime cohesion and intervention from foreign powers prompted the RSFSR to begin unifying these nations under one flag and created the Soviet Union. Historians consider the end of the revolutionary period to be in 1922, when the civil war concluded with the defeat of the White Army and separatist factions, leading to mass emigration from Russia. The victorious Bolshevik Party reconstituted itself into the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and remained in power for six decades.
Did You Know?
- The February Revolution began with Nicholas II abdicating on 15 March [O.S. 2 March] 1917.
- The October Revolution was a Bolshevik armed insurrection in Petrograd beginning 7 November [O.S. 25 October] 1917.
- The Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918 to end Russia's participation in World War I.
- The Cheka was established as a secret police to eliminate 'enemies of the people' in campaigns called the Red Terror.
- The revolutionary period is considered to have ended in 1922, when the civil war concluded with the defeat of the White Army.
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