Mexican Revolution
A decade-long civil war that reshaped Mexico.
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The Mexican Revolution was a decade-long series of armed regional conflicts that ran from November 20, 1910, to December 1, 1920. It is often described as the most important event in modern Mexican history. The fighting dismantled the Federal Army, put a revolutionary army in its place, and changed the country’s culture and government. The northern Constitutionalist faction won the war and wrote Mexico’s current constitution, which was designed to give the central government more power.
Revolutionary generals then ran the country from 1920 to 1940. Although the conflict was mainly a civil war, foreign countries—especially the United States—had major economic and strategic stakes that affected how things turned out. About one million people died, most of them civilians.
President Porfirio Díaz had been in power for decades (1876–1911) and had become very unpopular, but in 1910 there was no sense that a revolution was about to start. The aging Díaz couldn’t find a controlled way to handle who would succeed him, which led to a fight among elites and the middle class. This happened during a time of serious labor unrest, seen in strikes like those at Cananea and Río Blanco.
Madero presidency: November 1911 – February 1913
Wealthy northern landowner Francisco I. Madero ran against Díaz in the 1910 presidential election, but Díaz had him jailed. Madero then called for an armed revolt in the Plan of San Luis Potosí. Uprisings first broke out in Morelos, just south of Mexico City, and then on a much larger scale in northern Mexico. The Federal Army couldn’t stop the widespread rebellions, which showed how weak it was and encouraged the rebels.
Díaz resigned in May 1911 and went into exile. An interim government took over until elections could be held, the Federal Army was kept in place, and revolutionary forces were sent home. This first stage of the Revolution was fairly short and not very bloody.
Madero was elected president and took office in November 1911. Right away, he faced an armed rebellion from Emiliano Zapata in Morelos, where peasants wanted quick action on land reform. Madero had little political experience, his government was shaky, and more regional revolts broke out. In February 1913, top army generals from the old Díaz regime staged a coup in Mexico City.
They forced Madero and Vice President Pino Suárez to resign, and both were killed a few days later on the orders of the new president, Victoriano Huerta. This started a much bloodier phase of the Revolution. A coalition of northerners who opposed Huerta—the Constitutionalist Army, led by Coahuila Governor Venustiano Carranza—joined the fight.
Zapata’s forces kept up their armed rebellion in Morelos. Huerta’s regime lasted from February 1913 to July 1914, and the Federal Army was beaten by the revolutionary armies. Then the revolutionary armies turned on each other. Carranza’s Constitutionalist faction defeated the army of his former ally Francisco “Pancho” Villa by the summer of 1915.
Carranza consolidated his power, and a new constitution was issued in February 1917. The Mexican Constitution of 1917 gave all men the right to vote, promoted secularism, workers’ rights, economic nationalism, and land reform, and increased the federal government’s authority. Carranza became president in 1917, serving a term that ended in 1920. He tried to force a civilian successor, which led northern revolutionary generals to rebel.
Carranza fled Mexico City and was killed. From 1920 to 1940, revolutionary generals served as president, each finishing their terms (except from 1928 to 1934). During this time, state power became more centralized, revolutionary reforms were carried out, and the military was brought under civilian control.
The Revolution was a ten-year civil war that produced a new political leadership, which gained power and legitimacy through their role in the fighting. The political party these leaders founded in 1929—later called the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)—ruled Mexico until the 2000 presidential election. When the Revolution actually ended is not clearly defined. Even the conservative winner of the 2000 election, Vicente Fox, argued that his victory was the heir to Madero’s 1910 democratic election, thus claiming the Revolution’s heritage and legitimacy.
Lore & Background
The revolution saw the destruction of the Federal Army, its replacement by a revolutionary army, and the transformation of Mexican culture and government. The northern Constitutionalist faction prevailed on the battlefield and drafted the present-day Constitution of Mexico, which aimed to create a strong central government.
Revolutionary generals held power from 1920 to 1940. The conflict was primarily a civil war, but foreign powers, having important economic and strategic interests in Mexico, figured in the outcome; U.S. involvement was particularly high. The conflict led to the deaths of an estimated 1.5 to 2 million people, mostly non-combatants.
The Porfiriato and the Spark of 1910
Porfirio Díaz, who first seized the presidency in 1876, held power almost continuously until 1911 in an era now called the Porfiriato. The constitution was amended to allow unlimited presidential re-election, and regular elections were widely considered sham exercises, marked by contentious irregularities. Díaz consolidated power by playing opposing factions against each other and by expanding the Rurales, a force of armed and mounted police directly under his control that seized land from local peasants.
By 1900, over ninety percent of Mexico's communal lands were sold, with an estimated 9.5 million peasants forced into the service of wealthy landowners or hacendados. His watchwords were 'Order and Progress.' The economy took a great leap through construction of factories, industries, and infrastructure such as railroads and dams, but wealth, political power, and access to education were concentrated among a handful of elite landholding families. A drought from 1907 to 1909 exacerbated conditions, and intense labor unrest erupted in strikes at Cananea and Río Blanco. When wealthy northern landowner Francisco I. Madero challenged Díaz in the 1910 presidential election and Díaz jailed him, Madero called for an armed uprising against Díaz in the Plan of San Luis Potosí.
Rebellions broke out first in Morelos and then to a much greater extent in northern Mexico. The Federal Army could not suppress the widespread uprisings, showing the military's weakness and encouraging the rebels. Díaz resigned in May 1911 and went into exile.
A Decade of Blood: The Civil War's Phases
Madero was elected President, taking office in November 1911. He immediately faced the armed rebellion of Emiliano Zapata in Morelos, where peasants demanded rapid action on agrarian reform. Politically inexperienced, Madero's government was fragile, and further regional rebellions broke out. In February 1913, prominent army generals from the former Díaz regime staged a coup d'etat in Mexico City, forcing Madero and Vice President Pino Suárez to resign.
Days later, both men were assassinated by orders of the new president, Victoriano Huerta. This initiated a new and bloody phase of the Revolution, as a coalition of northerners opposed to the counter-revolutionary regime of Huerta, the Constitutionalist Army led by the Governor of Coahuila Venustiano Carranza, entered the conflict. Zapata's forces continued their armed rebellion in Morelos.
Huerta's regime lasted from February 1913 to July 1914, and the Federal Army was defeated by revolutionary armies. The revolutionary armies then fought each other, with the Constitutionalist faction under Carranza defeating the army of former ally Francisco 'Pancho' Villa by the summer of 1915. The conflict was primarily a civil war, but foreign powers, having important economic and strategic interests in Mexico, figured in the outcome of Mexico's power struggles; the U.S. involvement was particularly high. The conflict led to the deaths of around one million people, mostly non-combatants.
The 1917 Constitution: Rewriting the Social Contract
Carranza consolidated power and a new constitution was promulgated in February 1917. The Mexican Constitution of 1917 established universal male suffrage, promoted secularism, workers' rights, economic nationalism, and land reform, and enhanced the power of the federal government. Carranza became President of Mexico in 1917, serving a term ending in 1920.
He attempted to impose a civilian successor, prompting northern revolutionary generals to rebel. Carranza fled Mexico City and was killed. The Constitution of 1917 aimed to create a strong central government and remains the present-day constitution of Mexico.
Generals, Parties, and a Century of Legacy
From 1920 to 1940, revolutionary generals held the office of president, each completing their terms (except from 1928-1934). This was a period when state power became more centralized, and revolutionary reform implemented, bringing the military under the civilian government's control.
The political party those leaders founded in 1929, which would become the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), ruled Mexico until the presidential election of 2000. The Revolution was a decade-long civil war, with new political leadership that gained power and legitimacy through their participation in revolutionary conflicts. When the Revolution ended is not well defined, and even the conservative winner of the 2000 election, Vicente Fox, contended his election was heir to the 1910 democratic election of Francisco Madero, thereby claiming the heritage and legitimacy of the Revolution.
Reader's Guide
The revolution began when wealthy northern landowner Francisco I. Madero challenged President Porfirio Díaz in the 1910 election and, after being jailed, called for an armed uprising in the Plan of San Luis Potosí. Díaz resigned in May 1911. Madero was elected president in November 1911 but faced rebellion from Emiliano Zapata. In February 1913, a coup led by army generals from the Díaz regime forced Madero and Vice President Pino Suárez to resign; both were assassinated on orders of new president Victoriano Huerta.
This initiated a new phase, with the Constitutionalist Army led by Venustiano Carranza entering the conflict. Huerta's regime fell in July 1914. Revolutionary armies then fought each other, with Carranza's faction defeating Pancho Villa's army by summer 1915. Carranza consolidated power, and a new constitution was promulgated in February 1917.
Carranza became president in 1917, serving until 1920. He attempted to impose a civilian successor, prompting northern revolutionary generals to rebel; Carranza fled Mexico City and was killed. From 1920 to 1940, revolutionary generals held the presidency. The political party founded in 1929, which became the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), ruled Mexico until 2000.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Mexican Revolution?
The Mexican Revolution was a prolonged chain of armed regional conflicts that fundamentally restructured the country's military, political institutions, and cultural identity. It is widely cited as the single most formative event in Mexico's modern era.
When did the Mexican Revolution take place?
The conflict unfolded over roughly a decade, opening on 20 November 1910 and closing on 1 December 1920. Its extended duration reflects the fact that it was not one decisive battle but a succession of interconnected regional wars.
Who were the key players in the Mexican Revolution?
The uprising was triggered by the fall of long-time authoritarian ruler Porfirio Díaz, and the northern Constitutionalist faction ultimately won the war on the battlefield. That faction then went on to draft the 1917 Constitution and build a stronger central state.
What lasting changes did the Mexican Revolution bring?
It dismantled the old Federal Army and replaced it with a new revolutionary military force, while also overhauling the country's political and social structures. Its most enduring institutional legacy is the Constitution of Mexico that remains in force today.
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Sources
Compiled from Wikipedia and the sources listed below. Text from Wikipedia is available under CC BY-SA 4.0; this entry is adapted from it.
- Wikipedia: Mexican Revolution (CC BY-SA 4.0).
- Word definitions: the Codexery glossary, each quoted from its Wikipedia article.
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