Musa ibn Nusayr

Musa ibn Nusayr (c. 640 – c. 716) was an Arab Muslim commander, administrator, and governor for the Umayyad Caliphate under Caliphs Abd al-Malik and al-Walid I. As governor of Ifriqiya, he finished the Muslim takeover of the Maghreb, locked down Umayyad control across North Africa, and directed the Muslim entry into the Iberian Peninsula.

His father’s background is uncertain. Some sources say he came from the Lakhmid clan, semi-nomads east of the Euphrates allied with the Sassanians; others place him in the Banu Bakr confederation. Al-Tabari gives the most detailed account: Musa’s father was captured after the fall of Ayn al-Tamr in 633, an Arab Christian from Banu Yashkur held hostage there. Al-Baladhuri, however, says he was an Arab of the Balī tribe from Jabal al-Jalīl in Palestine. As a slave, he entered the service of Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan, governor of Egypt and son of Caliph Marwan I, who freed him. He then returned to Syria, where Musa was born at Kafarmara or Kafarmathra, around 640.

Musa was made co-governor of Iraq alongside the caliph’s brother Bishr ibn Marwan. A dispute over missing tax money arose, and Musa was given a choice: pay a huge fine or lose his head. Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan, who thought highly of him, paid the ransom and later appointed Musa governor of Ifriqiya.

Hasan ibn al-Nu'man had been sent to push the Islamic conquests across North Africa to Morocco but was removed after Byzantine attacks persisted. Musa was then sent to renew the campaign against the Berbers. He did not force Islam on them; instead, he respected Berber customs and used diplomacy. This worked well: many Berbers converted and joined his army as soldiers and officers, possibly including Tariq ibn Ziyad, who would later lead the expedition into Iberia.

In 698, Musa became governor of Ifriqiya, no longer subordinate to Egypt’s governor. He finished the conquest of North Africa and took the Balearic Islands and Sardinia. He was the first Muslim general to capture and hold Tangiers; his troops also took the Sous region, controlling all of northern Morocco. Facing constant Byzantine naval attacks, he built a fleet that conquered Ibiza, Mallorca, and Menorca.

Musa was eager to cross the Strait of Gibraltar into Hispania but waited until Julian, Count of Ceuta, urged him to invade. Julian described the people’s suffering under King Roderic, the kingdom’s wealth, and its palaces and gardens. Legend says Julian wanted Roderic’s fall because the king had raped his daughter, Florinda la Cava.

After a successful reconnaissance raid of 400 soldiers on the Spanish coast at Tarifa—returning with booty and no resistance—Musa ordered a larger invasion. He sent his lieutenant Tariq ibn Ziyad across the strait with about 7,000 Berbers and Arabs, landing at Gibraltar (from *Jebel Tariq*, “Tariq’s mountain”). The expedition was meant for further raids and exploration. Tariq’s army included guides supplied by Julian. Three weeks after landing, the Muslims met a Visigoth royal army of 100,000 under Roderic and won the Battle of Guadalete, nearly wiping out the Visigoth nobility. The Muslims then marched on Córdoba, bypassing strong fortifications, and took the city. Tariq left a garrison there, mostly Jews who welcomed the invaders after centuries of forced conversion under the Visigoths. He then continued toward Toledo.

Learning of Tariq’s successes, Musa landed in Iberia with 18,000 Arabs and Berbers. He planned to meet Tariq at Toledo but first besieged Seville, which Tariq had bypassed, taking it after three months of stiff resistance. He then campaigned in Lusitania, crushing remaining Gothic resistance. His last stop before meeting Tariq was Mérida, Lusitania’s capital. After five months of siege and stalemate, a group of Ceutans pretended to be Christian reinforcements and tricked the defenders into opening the gates. Once inside, nearly 700 of these “reinforcements” overwhelmed the city.