Envy
Emotion of lacking another's quality or possession.
Envy is an emotion felt when someone lacks another person’s quality, skill, achievement, or possession, and either wants it or wants the other person to lose it. It can also involve wishing that someone else did not have something you already own, just to erase the equality between you. Aristotle described envy as pain upon seeing another’s good fortune, stirred by those who have what we think we should have. Bertrand Russell called it one of the strongest sources of unhappiness. Modern research continues to explore when envy arises, how people handle it, and whether it can push someone to imitate the person they envy. Jealousy differs from envy: jealousy usually centers on emotional relationships and the fear of losing them, while envy focuses on wanting what others have or their circumstances.
Some languages, like Dutch, separate envy into two types: “benign envy” and “malicious envy.” Malicious envy is an unpleasant feeling that makes the envious person want to bring the better-off person down, even at their own expense. Benign envy, though still negative and uncomfortable, involves recognizing that someone else is better off and feeling inspired to improve oneself. It can lead to emulation, motivation to grow, positive thoughts about the other person, and admiration. Handled well, benign envy might push someone to become better and succeed. There is debate over whether these are truly distinct forms of envy. Some argue that the action tendencies—harming another’s position in malicious envy versus improving one’s own in benign envy—are not part of the emotion’s definition, while others see action tendencies as essential. Those who reject subtypes claim that the situation simply shapes how envy leads to behavior; those who accept subtypes think the situation determines which subtype is experienced.
Following Charles Darwin’s 1859 work on evolution by natural selection, his 1872 book *The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals* proposed that emotions evolved in animals because they offered survival value. In 1998, neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp showed that mammalian brains can generate emotional experiences. Later behavioral research has shed light on emotions like envy and how they affect thinking and behavior.
- Field
- Emotion psychology
- Known for
- Distinction from jealousy; subtypes of benign and malicious envy; evolutionary role in fairness and economic redistribution
Lore & Background
Envy has been discussed by philosophers such as Aristotle, who defined it as pain at another's good fortune, and Bertrand Russell, who considered it a potent cause of unhappiness. Some languages, such as Dutch, distinguish between 'benign envy' (benijden) and 'malicious envy' (afgunst), with research showing that malicious envy causes a desire to bring down the better-off, while benign envy involves recognition of others being better-off and can inspire emulation and improvement motivation. There is debate whether these are distinct subtypes or whether the situation affects how envy leads to behavior.
Following Charles Darwin's work on the evolution of emotion, neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp provided data showing mammalian brains can generate emotional experiences. Primate research by Frans de Waal demonstrated that chimpanzees and brown capuchin monkeys have a sense of justice, with envy being the key emotion used to measure and regulate fair outcomes. De Waal argued that without envy motivating social comparisons, there would be no reason to care about fairness and justice. Sznycer has argued that envy increases support for economic redistribution.
Envy often involves a motive to outdo or undo a rival's advantages, and may be based on materialistic possessions. Nelson W. Aldrich Jr. described envy as beginning with a sense of emptiness inside oneself. Envy can negatively affect relationships, and coping strategies include stimulus-focused approaches and self-bolstering. Benign envy may lead a person to work harder to achieve more success. Envy becomes apparent in children from an early stage, and adolescents often envy material objects correlated to social status, though as they get older they develop stronger non-materialistic envy such as over activities, physical appearance, achievement, and popularity.
Reader's Guide
Envy is a significant emotion in human psychology, studied for its role in social comparison, fairness, and economic behavior. Its distinction from jealousy—where jealousy focuses on emotional relationships and fear of loss—helps clarify its unique function. The debate over whether benign and malicious envy are distinct subtypes or merely different behavioral outcomes of the same emotion remains unresolved in research. Envy's evolutionary importance is supported by primate studies showing it underpins a sense of justice, and by arguments that it motivates economic redistribution. In market societies, envy is seen as integral to behavior, driving competition and the 'keep up with the Joneses' phenomenon. Understanding envy informs coping strategies, particularly for adolescents whose self-esteem is fragile and heavily impacted by peer opinion. The emotion's ability to concentrate cognitive resources and enhance memory of social targets highlights its adaptive value, while its potential to inspire emulation offers a pathway to personal improvement.
Did You Know?
- Aristotle defined envy as pain at the sight of another's good fortune, stirred by 'those who have what we ought to have'.
- Frans de Waal's research showed that chimpanzees and brown capuchin monkeys have a sense of justice regulated by envy.
- Bertrand Russell said that envy was one of the most potent causes of unhappiness.
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