Reproduction & Development Codexery

Pupa

The transformative pupal stage bridges larva and adult insect.

In insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, the pupal stage is positioned between the larval and adult phases, and it is typically a non-feeding, sessile period, though some pupae like those of mosquitoes are highly active.[1] Imaginal discs give rise to adult structures during the pupal stage, while larval tissues are simultaneously dismantled.[1] The length of the pupal stage varies widely—from weeks to months or even years—depending on the insect species and environmental temperature.[2]

Quick Facts

Type
Life stage of holometabolous insects
Key hormones
  • Juvenile hormone
  • prothoracicotropic hormone
  • ecdysone
Duration
  • Weeks
  • months
  • or years depending on species and temperature
Common names
Chrysalis (butterflies), tumbler (mosquitoes)

Facts from the source article.

Key facts and history

The pupal stage typically follows the larval stage and precedes adulthood in holometabolous insects.[1] Pupae can be classified by the presence or absence of articulated mandibles used for emerging from a cocoon.[3] They can also be classified into three types based on whether the pupal appendages are free or attached to the body.[4] A chrysalis is the pupal stage of butterflies, and the term derives from the Ancient Greek word for gold, referring to the metallic-gold coloration of many butterfly pupae.[5]

Most chrysalides are attached to a surface by a silken pad and a cremastral hook.[6] Some pupae, such as those of Muscomorpha flies, remain inside the final larval exoskeleton, which is then called a puparium.[7] Butterfly pupae are called chrysalises, and mosquito pupae are referred to as tumblers, illustrating that different insect groups have distinct names for their pupal forms.[8] Because pupae are typically immobile and vulnerable, many species employ strategies such as constructing a cocoon, using camouflage, or pupating underground to evade predators.[9]

Ants provide protection to the pupae of certain lycaenid butterfly species.[9] To deter predators or generate sounds, some butterfly pupae are able to move their abdominal segments.[10]

What the cited sources add

The book "The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity" notes that cocoons may be tough or soft, opaque or translucent, solid or meshlike, and of various colors.[11][12] The same source states that many moth caterpillars shed urticating hairs into the cocoon, making it irritating to touch.[11][12] The book further explains that other larvae spin cocoons in concealed locations like leaf undersides, crevices, or leaf litter.[11][12] According to the sources, certain larvae enhance their cocoon's disguise by attaching twigs, fecal pellets, or pieces of vegetation to its exterior.[11][12]

References

  1. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Aldaz, "Imaginal discs", Current Biology, 2010, p. R429–R431; Guarino, "Mutant butterflies reveal the genetic roots of colorful wings", The Washington Post, September 19, 2017 (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  2. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Nielsen, Erik Tetens, and J. St Haeger. "Pupation and emergence in Aedes taeniorhynchus (Wied.)." Bulletin of Entomological Research 45.4 (1954): 757–768.; Elliott, J. M. "Temperature‐related fluctuations in the timing of emergence and pupation of Windermere alder‐flies over 30 years." Ecological Entomology 21.3 (1; University of Minnesota Extension, "Monarch Life Cycle" (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  3. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: "Types of Pupa", Agri Info (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  4. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Wu, "Phase‐Resolved Pupal Ecdysis Behavior and Requirement of Ecdysis‐Triggering Hormone in Henosepilachna vigintioctomaculata", Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology, 2026 (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  5. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Darby, "What is a Butterfly", Benefic Press, 1958, p. 19 (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  6. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: "Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias" (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  7. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Gullan, "The Insects: An Outline of Entomology", Blackwell, 2000 (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  8. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Borror, "Introduction to the Study of Insects", Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 2004 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org
  9. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Chapman, "The insects : structure and function", Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 419 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org
  10. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Lowe, "Metamorphosis revealed: three dimensional imaging inside a living chrysalis", Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 2013; AMNH Accessed December 2006 (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  11. Open Library record, ISBN 0198540310 ("The lepidoptera"). CC0 (metadata); book content not read. openlibrary.org
  12. Wikipedia, "Pupa" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Scoble, "The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity", Oxford University Press, 1992 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org

Each numbered sentence above was checked against the source it cites before publication. Sentences citing Wikipedia adapt text from the English Wikipedia article Pupa (contributors), used under CC BY-SA 4.0; this entry is available under the same licence. Other sources were used for facts only; no text or images are copied from them.

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