Eighty Years' War

The Eighty Years’ War, also called the Dutch Revolt, lasted from around 1566 or 1568 until 1648. It was a fight in the Habsburg Netherlands between the Spanish government and various rebel groups. The revolt was sparked by the Reformation, efforts to centralize power, high taxes, and disputes over the traditional rights of Dutch nobles and cities.

Early on, King Philip II of Spain—who ruled the Netherlands—sent in his armies and took back most of the rebel-held areas. But widespread mutinies among Spanish troops led to a larger uprising. Led by the exiled William the Silent, provinces that were both Catholic and Protestant tried to set up religious peace and oppose the king together through the Pacification of Ghent. This general rebellion, however, could not hold.

Even though the Duke of Parma, Spain’s governor and general, scored steady military and diplomatic wins, the Union of Utrecht kept fighting. They declared independence with the 1581 Act of Abjuration and founded the Calvinist-dominated Dutch Republic in 1588.

Over the next ten years, the Republic—whose home base was no longer in danger—made gains in the north and east. France and England officially recognized the Republic in 1596. The Dutch also started building a colonial empire, beginning with attacks on Portuguese overseas territories.

With both sides stuck in a stalemate, they agreed to a Twelve Years’ Truce in 1609. When it ended in 1621, fighting resumed as part of the larger Thirty Years’ War. The war finally ended in 1648 with the Peace of Münster. Spain kept the Southern Netherlands and recognized the Dutch Republic as an independent country.

Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621)

The truce was signed in Antwerp on 9 April 1609. It stopped the Dutch Revolt for twelve years. Both Spain and the Republic were strained by military costs and falling trade.

For Holland’s advocate Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, the truce was a major diplomatic win—Spain formally recognized the Republic’s independence. In Spain, though, the truce was seen as a deep humiliation: a political, military, and ideological defeat that badly damaged Spanish prestige. The Spanish particularly resented the closure of the Scheldt River to Antwerp’s traffic and the acceptance of Dutch trade in Spanish and Portuguese colonial waters.

During the truce, peace held internationally, but Dutch politics grew turbulent. A theological quarrel between Remonstrants (Arminians) and Counter-Remonstrants (Gomarists) sparked riots. Generally, regents backed the Remonstrants, while ordinary people supported the Counter-Remonstrants.

The government got involved too: Oldenbarnevelt sided with the Remonstrants, and stadtholder Maurice of Nassau backed their opponents. The Synod of Dort eventually condemned the Remonstrants as heretics and excommunicated them from the national Public Church. Oldenbarnevelt and his ally Gilles van Ledenberg were sentenced to death; two other Remonstrant allies, Rombout Hogerbeets and Hugo Grotius, got life in prison.

Peace of Münster

Formal peace talks between Spain and the Republic began in January 1646, as part of the wider negotiations to end the Thirty Years’ War. The States General sent eight delegates from different provinces—since no province trusted the others to represent them fairly. The Spanish delegation was led by Gaspar de Bracamonte, 3rd Count of Peñaranda. The talks took place in what is now the Haus der Niederlande in Münster.

The Dutch and Spanish quickly reached a deal based on the Twelve Years’ Truce. It confirmed Spain’s recognition of Dutch independence.

Spain met most Dutch demands: closing the Scheldt, giving up the Meierij, formally ceding Dutch conquests in the Indies and Americas, and lifting Spanish embargoes. But the broader peace talks dragged on because France kept making new demands. So the Republic and Spain split their peace from the general negotiations, signing a separate treaty—which annoyed France, since it claimed this broke their 1635 alliance with the Republic.

The treaty’s 79 articles were finalized on 30 January 1648 and sent to King Philip IV of Spain and the States General for approval. On 4 April, five provinces voted to ratify (against the advice of stadtholder William). Zeeland and Utrecht opposed.

Utrecht gave in to pressure from the other provinces, but Zeeland held out and refused to sign. The peace was ratified without Zeeland’s consent. On 15 May 1648, the delegates to the peace conference affirmed the treaty on oath—though Zeeland’s delegate didn’t attend, and Utrecht’s delegate came down with a possibly diplomatic illness.