German revolutions of 1848–1849

The German revolutions of 1848–1849, whose early phase is known as the March Revolution, began as part of a wider wave of uprisings across Europe that year. These were a set of loosely connected protests and rebellions within the states of the German Confederation, which included the Austrian Empire.

The movements emphasized pan-German unity, liberal reforms, and parliamentary government, reflecting widespread frustration with the traditional, mostly autocratic rule of the Confederation’s 39 independent states. These states had taken over the German lands of the former Holy Roman Empire after Napoleon’s wars dismantled it. This unrest had been building since the mid-1840s.

The middle class pushed for liberal principles, while the working class demanded radical changes to their harsh jobs and living conditions. When these two groups split, the conservative aristocracy managed to crush the revolution. Liberals who faced persecution fled into exile, becoming known as the Forty-Eighters; many went to the United States, settling from Wisconsin down to Texas.

Events leading up to the revolutions

The seeds of the 1848 uprising were planted as early as the Hambacher Fest in 1832, when public anger over heavy taxes and political censorship began to grow. At that festival, Republicans adopted the black-red-gold colors now on Germany’s national flag as a symbol of the republican movement and unity among German speakers. The song “Fürsten zum Land Hinaus!” came from the festival and quickly gained support for abolishing monarchies and creating a republic.

Activism for liberal reforms spread through many German states, each experiencing its own distinct revolution. The movement was also inspired by street demonstrations led by workers and artisans in Paris from 22 to 24 February 1848, which forced King Louis-Philippe of France to abdicate and flee to Britain. That event is known as the February Revolution. The revolutions then spread from France across Europe.

Large protests erupted soon after in both Austria and Germany, starting with major demonstrations on 13 March 1848 in Vienna. This led to the resignation of Prince von Metternich, chief minister to Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, and his exile in Britain. Because of the date of the Vienna protests, the uprisings across Germany are usually called the March Revolution.

Fearing they might share Louis-Philippe’s fate, some German monarchs temporarily gave in to the revolutionaries’ demands. In the south and west, large public assemblies and mass demonstrations took place, calling for freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, written constitutions, arming the people, and a parliament.

Austria

In 1848, Austria was the leading German state. After the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by Napoleon in 1806, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 created the German Confederation, a loose coalition of states with Austria serving as its president ex officio. Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich had dominated Austrian politics from 1815 until 1848.

On 13 March 1848, university students mounted a large street demonstration in Vienna, covered by the press across German-speaking states. Following smaller protests against Lola Montez in Bavaria on 9 February 1848, this was the first major revolt of 1848 in German lands. The students had been restless and were encouraged by a sermon from liberal priest Anton Füster on 12 March at the university chapel.

They demanded a constitution and a constituent assembly elected by universal male suffrage. Emperor Ferdinand and Metternich ordered troops to crush the protest. When demonstrators moved near the Hofburg, soldiers fired on the students, killing several.

Vienna’s new working class then joined the students, sparking an armed insurrection. The Diet of Lower Austria demanded Metternich’s resignation. With no forces backing him, Ferdinand reluctantly dismissed him, and Metternich went into exile in London.

Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal ministers. The Austrian government drafted a constitution in late April 1848, but the people rejected it because it denied most citizens the right to vote. Vienna’s citizens returned to the streets on 26 and 27 May, building barricades to prepare for an army attack.

Ferdinand and his family fled to Innsbruck, surrounded by loyal peasants in the Tyrol. He issued manifestos on 16 May and 3 June, granting concessions. He turned the Imperial Diet into a Constituent Assembly elected by the people.

Other concessions were less substantial and mostly addressed Germany’s reorganization and unification. Ferdinand returned to Vienna on 12 August. The working class again took to the streets on 21 August to protest high unemployment and a government decree cutting wages. On 23 August, Austrian troops fired on unarmed demonstrators, killing several.

In late September, Ferdinand—also King Ferdinand V of Hungary—sent Austrian and Croatian troops to crush a democratic rebellion in Hungary. On 29 September, those troops were defeated by Hungarian revolutionary forces. On 6 and 7 October, Vienna’s citizens demonstrated again.