Madonna (art)

In Christian art, a Madonna is a depiction of the Virgin Mary, shown either by herself or with the infant Jesus. This type of image serves as a central icon for both Catholic and Orthodox churches, and it also appears in some Evangelical-Lutheran congregations. The word comes from the Italian phrase *ma donna*, an archaic term for "my lady." English speakers began using "Madonna" in the 17th century, mostly when talking about Italian Renaissance artworks. Within Eastern Orthodox tradition, these same images are usually called *Theotokos*.

The classic Madonna or Theotokos imagery emerged in the 5th century, after the Council of Ephesus in 431 formally recognized Mary as the Mother of God, or *Theotokos* ("God-bearer"), which greatly boosted Marian devotion. This iconography grew in importance from the 6th to 8th centuries and became especially prominent during the high medieval period (12th to 14th centuries) in both Eastern Orthodox and Latin Christian spheres. A tradition first recorded in the 8th century, still strong in the Eastern Church, holds that the iconography of Mary goes back to a portrait drawn from life by Luke the Evangelist; several icons, such as the Panagia Portaitissa, are claimed to be either that original or a direct copy. In the Western tradition, Renaissance masters like Duccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, Caravaggio, and Rubens greatly diversified depictions of the Madonna, as did later modernists such as Salvador Dalí and Henry Moore. Eastern Orthodox iconography, by contrast, sticks more closely to inherited traditional types.

Liturgical texts that portray Mary as a powerful intercessor, like the Akathist, moved from Greek into Latin tradition in the 8th century. The Greek title *Despoina* was adopted as the Latin *Domina*, meaning "Lady." The medieval Italian *Ma Donna* ("My Lady") reflects *Mea Domina*, while *Nostra Domina* became *Nostre Dame* ("Our Lady") in French. These names signal both the rising importance of the cult of the Virgin and the role of art in serving Marian devotion during the late medieval period. In the 13th century, with chivalry and aristocratic culture influencing poetry, song, and visual arts, the Madonna was often shown as the queen of Heaven, frequently enthroned—as in the Ognissanti Madonna. The imagery was meant to remind viewers of the theological value placed on purity and virginity, also represented by the color of her clothing. Blue symbolized purity, virginity, and royalty; ultramarine was reserved for the most important commissions, such as the blue robes of the Virgin Mary in Gerard David's *Virgin and Child with Female Saints*.

Though the Italian term *Madonna* paralleled English "Our Lady" in late medieval devotion, it entered English as an art historical term in the 1640s, specifically for Italian Renaissance Marian art. In this sense, "a Madonna" or "a Madonna with Child" refers to particular works, mostly Italian. A Madonna may also be called "Virgin" or "Our Lady," but the term is not typically applied to Eastern works; for example, the Theotokos of Vladimir is often called "Our Lady of Vladimir" in English, while "Madonna of Vladimir" is less usual but not unheard of.

Several distinct types of Madonna representation exist. One type shows Mary alone, without the child Jesus, standing and generally glorified, with a gesture of prayer, benediction, or prophecy. This appears in a number of ancient apsidal mosaics. Full-length standing images more often include the infant Jesus, who turns toward the viewer or raises his hand in benediction. The most famous Byzantine image, the Hodegetria, was originally of this type, though most copies are half-length. This type appears frequently in sculpture, from fragile ivory carvings to limestone carvings on cathedral doorposts to polychrome wooden or plaster casts in many Catholic churches. Famous paintings of this kind include Raphael's *Sistine Madonna*. The "Madonna enthroned" dates from the Byzantine period and was widely used in medieval and Renaissance times, often as large altarpieces, frescoes, or apsidal mosaics. In medieval examples, angels often support the throne, or rows of saints accompany the Madonna. In Renaissance painting, especially the High Renaissance, saints may be grouped informally in a composition known as a *Sacra conversazione*. The Madonna of humility shows Mary sitting on the ground or on a low cushion, sometimes holding the Child Jesus in her lap.