Roman invasion of Caledonia (208–211)

Background

Those legions suffered heavy casualties at the Battle of Lugdunum, leaving Hadrian's Wall undermanned. Increased cooperation among northern tribes allowed the Caledonians to gather more men for their attacks.

Invasion of Caledonia

Severus arrived in Britain in 208 with around 40,000 men and marched to Hadrian's Wall, where he began a massive rebuilding project that made the entire wall into stone. He then occupied the land between Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall and started reconstructing the Antonine Wall. In 209 he led his army north into the highlands, following roughly the same route as Agricola's invasion over 100 years earlier. The Caledonians used guerrilla tactics, causing heavy Roman casualties.

Severus responded by reoccupying many of Agricola's old forts and devastating territory he could not hold. Several tribes sought peace out of fear of extinction, but talks failed. In early 210, Caracalla led a punitive expedition north of the Antonine Wall with orders to kill, loot, and burn; Severus planned to follow and permanently occupy Caledonia. Severus fell ill in 210 and went to York, where he died on 4 February 211.

Caracalla called off the war and returned to Rome. Forts erected during the campaign were placed near Agricola's forts at the mouths of Highland glens, but the Caledonians revolted in 210–211 and overran them. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again due to a lack of spare forces, and soon withdrew permanently to Hadrian's Wall. Epigraphical evidence includes an inscription to the goddess Victoria Brigantia, showing anticipation of victory.

Cassius Dio's account of the invasion

Severus invaded Caledonia desiring to subjugate the whole island. As he advanced, his forces endured hardships cutting forests, levelling heights, filling swamps, and bridging rivers, but fought no battle and saw no enemy in battle array. The Caledonians lured the Romans deeper by leaving sheep and cattle for them to seize.

Water caused great suffering, and scattered Romans were attacked; unable to walk, they were slain by their own men to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. Severus did not desist until he approached the island's extremity, where he observed the variation of the sun's motion and day length. He was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way due to infirmity, and returned to friendly territory after forcing the Britons to abandon a large part of their territory.

Did You Know?

• The war led to the rebuilding of Hadrian's Wall, which once again became the border of Roman Britain.
• The campaign reinforced the British frontier and weakened the Caledonian tribes for many years.