Plutarch

Plutarch, a Greek philosopher, historian, and biographer, lived from before 50 CE to after 120 CE. He was a Middle Platonist and later a Roman citizen, possibly known as Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus. He is famous for his *Parallel Lives*, biographies pairing famous Greeks and Romans, and the *Moralia*, a collection of essays and speeches. He also served as a priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi.

Born into a prominent family in Chaeronea, a small town east of Delphi in Boeotia, his father was Autobulus and his grandfather Lamprias. His brothers Timon and Lamprias appear often in his writings, with Timon mentioned affectionately.

He studied mathematics and philosophy in Athens under Ammonius in 66–67 CE. He attended the Delphic games where Emperor Nero competed and likely met prominent Romans, including the future emperor Vespasian. He gained Roman citizenship through his sponsor, Lucius Mestrius Florus, an associate of Vespasian, which gave him the name Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus and placed him in the equestrian order. He visited Rome with Florus, who later served as a source for his *Life of Otho*. He was acquainted with Roman nobles like Quintus Sosius Senecio, Titus Avidius Quietus, and Arulenus Rusticus, all mentioned in his works.

Plutarch spent most of his life in Chaeronea and was initiated into the mysteries of Apollo, likely also participating in the Eleusinian Mysteries. During his Roman visit, he may have been part of a Delphic embassy; around that time, Vespasian granted Delphi municipal rights. Later, he became one of two sanctuary priests at Delphi’s Temple of Apollo, a site that had declined since classical times. In the 90s CE, Delphi saw a construction boom funded by Greek patrons and possibly imperial support. A portrait bust was dedicated to Plutarch for his efforts in reviving the Delphic shrines. A 2nd-century philosopher portrait at the Delphi Archaeological Museum, once thought to be Plutarch, shows a bearded young man with deep-set eyes. A nearby hermaic stele, inscribed “The Delphians, along with the Chaeroneans, dedicated this (image of) Plutarch, following the precepts of the Amphictyony,” likely once bore his portrait.

Beyond his priesthood, Plutarch served as a magistrate in Chaeronea and represented his town on foreign missions. He held the office of archon there, likely annually and possibly multiple times. He was epimeletes (manager) of the Amphictyonic League for at least five terms from 107 to 127 CE, organizing the Pythian Games, as noted in his work *Whether an Old Man Should Engage in Public Affairs*. According to the historian George Syncellus, Emperor Hadrian later appointed him nominal procurator of Achaea, allowing him to wear consul’s vestments.

Plutarch and his wife Timoxena had at least four sons and a daughter, though two children died young. A letter to his wife consoles her over the death of their two-year-old daughter, also named Timoxena, and mentions the loss of a son, Chaeron. Two sons, Autoboulos and Plutarch, appear in his works; his treatise on Plato’s *Timaeus* is dedicated to them. A third son, Soklaros, named after his friend, likely survived to adulthood, though he is absent from later works. An inscription from Trajan’s time mentions a Lucius Mestrius Soclarus, sharing Plutarch’s Latin name. The traditional catalog of his works is attributed to a son named Lamprias, but most scholars consider this a later addition. His family remained in Greece until at least the fourth century, producing philosophers and authors. Apuleius, author of *The Golden Ass*, made his fictional protagonist a descendant of Plutarch.

Plutarch’s death year is unknown. Gregory Crane estimates 125 CE, while the 1911 *Encyclopædia Britannica* suggests 120 CE; the current *Encyclopædia Britannica* gives “after 119.”

His best-known work, the *Parallel Lives*, pairs biographies of famous Greeks and Romans to highlight moral virtues and vices, focusing more on human nature than strict history. As he states in his *Life of Alexander*, he cared less about history than about how character shapes lives. He sometimes skimmed major events but lingered on charming anecdotes.