Sima Qian

Sima Qian, a historian of the early Han dynasty, is widely regarded as the father of Chinese historiography. His monumental work, the *Shiji* (often translated as *Records of the Grand Historian*), is a general history of China that spans over two thousand years, beginning with the legendary Yellow Emperor and the formation of the first Chinese polity, and ending with the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, during which Sima wrote. As the first universal history of the world as it was known to the ancient Chinese, the *Shiji* became the template for official histories across the Sinosphere, a standard that lasted into the 20th century.

The project was originally conceived by Sima Qian’s father, Sima Tan, who had only completed some preliminary sketches before his death. Inheriting his father’s position as court historian, Sima Qian was determined to fulfill his father’s dying wish to compose this epic history. In 99 BC, however, he became entangled in the Li Ling affair. When General Li Ling was blamed for a failed campaign against the Xiongnu, Sima spoke out in his defense. Faced with the choice of execution or castration, he chose castration so he could finish his historical work. Though best remembered for the *Records*, surviving works show he was also a gifted poet and prose writer, and he played a key role in creating the Taichu calendar, officially adopted in 104 BC.

Sima was keenly aware of how his personal suffering connected to his work’s importance for future generations. In the postface of the *Records*, he compared his universal history to classics like the *Guoyu* by Zuo Qiuming, “Li Sao” by Qu Yuan, and the *Art of War* by Sun Bin, noting that their authors all endured great personal misfortunes before producing their lasting works. Sima Qian is also depicted in the *Wu Shuang Pu* by Jin Guliang.

Born at Xiayang in Zuopingyi (near present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi), Sima Qian was probably born around 145 BC, though some sources say 135 BC. Around 136 BC, his father Sima Tan was appointed grand historian (or grand scribe or grand astrologer) at the imperial court. This was a relatively low-ranking post, mainly responsible for formulating the yearly calendar, identifying auspicious and inauspicious days, and presenting it to the emperor before the new year. Other duties included accompanying the emperor for important rituals and recording daily events at court and around the country. By his own account, by age ten Sima could “read the old writings” and was seen as a promising scholar. He grew up in a Confucian environment and always viewed his historical work as an act of Confucian filial piety.

Around age 20, in 126 BC, Sima Qian began an extensive tour of Han-dynasty China. Starting from the imperial capital, Chang’an (modern Xi’an), he traveled south across the Yangtze to Changsha Kingdom (modern Hunan), where he visited the Miluo River site where the Warring States poet Qu Yuan was said to have drowned. He then sought the burial places of the legendary rulers Yu the Great on Mount Xianglu and Shun in the Jiuyi Mountains (modern Ningyuan County, Hunan). Heading north, he went to Huaiyin (modern Huai’an, Jiangsu) to see the grave of Han general Han Xin, then continued to Qufu, Confucius’s hometown, where he studied ritual and other traditional subjects.

After his travels, Sima was chosen as a Palace Attendant, a role that involved inspecting different parts of the country with Emperor Wu in 122 BC. He married young and had one daughter. In 110 BC, at age 35, he was sent westward on a military expedition against “barbarian” tribes. That year, his father fell ill, distressed at not being invited to the Imperial Feng Sacrifice. Sensing his time was short, Sima Tan summoned his son home to take over the historical work. He wanted to follow the *Spring and Autumn Annals*, the first chronicle in Chinese literature. It appears Sima Tan only managed an outline before dying. The postface of the *Shiji* includes a short essay on six philosophical schools explicitly attributed to him, but otherwise only fragments are speculated to be his work. Fueled by his father’s inspiration, Sima Qian spent much of the next decade authoring and compiling the *Shiji*, completing it before 91 BC, probably around 94 BC. Three years after his father’s death, he assumed the position of *taishi*. In 105 BC, he was among the scholars chosen to reform the calendar. As a senior official, he also offered counsel to the emperor on state affairs.

In 99 BC, Sima became embroiled in the Li Ling affair. Li Ling and Li Guangli, two officers leading a campaign against the Xiongnu, were defeated and taken captive. Emperor Wu blamed Li Ling, and all government officials condemned him. Sima was the only one to defend Li Ling, whom he respected though they were never friends. The emperor interpreted this defense as an attack on his brother-in-law, Li Guangli, who had also fought the Xiongnu.