Daniel Defoe

Daniel Defoe (c. 1660 – 24 April 1731) made his name as an English writer, journalist, merchant, and spy, best known for the novels *Robinson Crusoe* (1719), *Moll Flanders* (1722), and *Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress* (1724). Alongside Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson, he is regarded as an early champion of the English novel, helping to establish the form in Britain. *Robinson Crusoe* had already gone through four editions by the end of 1719 and has since become one of the most widely published books ever, inspiring so many imitations that its title coined a genre: the Robinsonade. Defoe also produced numerous political tracts, frequently clashed with authorities, and served time in prison. His fresh ideas caught the attention of intellectuals and political leaders, who sometimes sought his advice.

Born Daniel Foe, likely in Fore Street, St Giles Cripplegate, London, he later added the aristocratic-sounding "De" to his surname and occasionally falsely claimed descent from a family named De Beau Faux. (The prefix "De" is also common in Flemish surnames.) His exact birthdate and place remain uncertain, with sources suggesting dates from 1659 to 1662; summer or early autumn of 1660 is considered most probable. His father, James Foe, was a prosperous tallow chandler of likely Flemish descent and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. His mother, Alice, died when he was about ten.

As a young child, Defoe lived through major historical events: the Great Plague of London in 1665 killed seventy thousand people; the Great Fire of London the following year left only his house and two others standing in his neighbourhood. In 1667, when he was around seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the Thames and attacked Chatham in the raid on the Medway.

Defoe attended the Rev. James Fisher's boarding school in Dorking, Surrey. His parents were Presbyterian dissenters, and around age fourteen he was sent to Charles Morton's dissenting academy at Newington Green, then a village just north of London, where he is believed to have worshipped at the Dissenting church. He lived on Church Street, Stoke Newington, at what is now numbers 95–103. During this period, the English government persecuted those who worshipped outside the established Church of England.

He began his business career as a general merchant, trading at various times in hosiery, woollen goods, and wine. Ambitious, he bought a country estate, a ship, and even civets for perfume production, yet he was rarely out of debt. On 1 January 1684, he married Mary Tuffley at St Botolph's Aldgate. She was the daughter of a London merchant and brought a dowry of £3,700. The marriage may have been strained by his debts and political troubles, but it lasted 47 years and produced eight children.

In 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but received a pardon, escaping the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. After Queen Mary II and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1689, Defoe became a close ally of William and a secret agent. New policies led to conflict with France, damaging his own trade relationships. In 1692, he was arrested for debts of £700 and, facing total debts possibly reaching £17,000, declared bankruptcy. He died with little wealth and was apparently entangled in lawsuits with the royal treasury.

After his release from debtors' prison, he likely travelled in Europe and Scotland, possibly trading wine to Cádiz, Porto, and Lisbon. By 1695, he was back in England, formally using the name "Defoe" and serving as a commissioner of the glass duty, collecting taxes on bottles. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury, Essex, and lived in the parish of Chadwell St Mary nearby.

As many as 545 titles have been attributed to Defoe, including satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets, and volumes. His first notable publication was *An Essay Upon Projects* (1697), a series of proposals for social and economic improvement. From 1697 to 1698, he defended King William III's right to a standing army during disarmament after the Treaty of Ryswick ended the Nine Years' War. His most successful poem, *The True-Born Englishman* (1701), defended William against xenophobic attacks from political enemies and anti-immigration sentiment. In 1701, Defoe presented the Legion's Memorial to Robert Harley, then Speaker of the House of Commons—and later his employer—while flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen, demanding the release of the Kentish petitioners who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France.

William III's death in 1702 triggered political upheaval, as Queen Anne immediately targeted Nonconformists. Defoe became a natural target. His pamphleteering led to his arrest and placement in a pillory on 31 July 1703, mainly for his December 1702 pamphlet *The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church*, which satirised high church Tories and hypocritical Dissenters who practised occasional conformity, such as his neighbour Sir Thomas Abney. Published anonymously, the true authorship was quickly discovered, and Defoe was arrested.