Vedas

The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेदः, Vēdaḥ, meaning "knowledge") are a vast collection of religious writings from ancient India. Written in Vedic Sanskrit, they represent the earliest surviving layer of Sanskrit literature and the most ancient sacred texts of Hinduism. Hindus regard the Vedas as *apauruṣeya*—meaning "not of human origin," "superhuman," and "without an author"—believing them to be sacred sounds and texts revealed to ancient sages during deep meditation.

There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharvaveda. Each Veda is divided into four parts: the Samhitas (mantras and blessings), the Brahmanas (explanations of rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices, known as *yajñas*), the Aranyakas (texts on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, and symbolic sacrifices), and the Upanishads (discussions on meditation, philosophy, and spiritual knowledge). Some scholars add a fifth category called the Upāsanās (worship). The Upanishads explore ideas similar to those found in the heterodox *śramaṇa* traditions.

The Vedas are classified as *śruti* ("that which is heard"), setting them apart from other religious texts, which are called *smr̥ti* ("that which is remembered"). Since the 2nd millennium BCE, the Vedas have been passed down orally using intricate mnemonic techniques. The mantras—the oldest portion of the Vedas—are recited today primarily for their sound rather than their meaning. They are considered "primordial rhythms of creation," existing before the forms they refer to, and reciting them is believed to regenerate the cosmos by "enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base."

Different Indian philosophies and Hindu sects hold varying views on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy that accept the importance or primary authority of the Vedas are part of Hindu philosophy and are collectively known as the six "orthodox" (*āstika*) schools. In contrast, *śramaṇa* traditions such as Charvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism, and Jainism, which reject the Vedas as authoritative, are called "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (*nāstika*) schools.

The Sanskrit word *véda* means "knowledge" or "wisdom," derived from the root *vid-* ("to know"), which itself comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *weyd-* ("to see" or "to know"). This noun is related to the Greek *(ϝ)εἶδος* ("aspect," "form") and is not to be confused with the homonymous perfect tense *véda* (meaning "I know"), which is cognate with Greek *(ϝ)οἶδα* ("I know"). Other cognates include Greek *ἰδέα*, English *wit*, Latin *videō* ("I see"), and Russian *ве́дать* (*védat'*, "to know"). As a common noun, *veda* can also mean "obtaining or finding wealth, property" in some contexts, such as Rigveda hymn 10.93.11, or "a bunch of grass" used as a broom or for ritual fire.

The term "Vedic texts" has two distinct meanings: texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India), and any text considered "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas." The Vedic Sanskrit corpus includes the Samhitas—collections of metric mantras—of which there are four: the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda, most surviving in multiple recensions (*śākhā*). In some contexts, "Veda" refers only to these Samhitas, the oldest layer, composed between roughly 1500–1200 BCE (Rig Veda books 2–9) and 1200–900 BCE (the other Samhitas). These Samhitas contain invocations to deities like Indra and Agni, seeking blessings for success in battle or the welfare of the clan. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras, as catalogued in Bloomfield's *Vedic Concordance* (1907), includes about 89,000 *padas* (metrical feet), with 72,000 occurring in the four Samhitas.

The Brahmanas are prose texts that comment on and explain solemn rituals, as well as their meanings and related themes. Each Brahmana is linked to a specific Samhita or its recension. The oldest date to around 900 BCE, while the youngest, such as the Shatapatha Brahmana, were completed by about 700 BCE. Brahmanas may exist as separate texts or be partly integrated into the Samhitas, and they sometimes include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.

The Aranyakas, or "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties," were composed by recluses meditating in the woods and form the third part of the Vedas. They discuss and interpret ceremonies from both ritualistic and symbolic meta-ritualistic perspectives, and are frequently referenced in secondary literature.

The older Principal Upanishads—including the Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chāndogya, Kaṭha, Kena, and Aitareya—were composed between 800 BCE and the end of the Vedic period. These largely philosophical works, often in dialogue form, are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the entire Vedic corpus, only the Upanishads are widely known, and their central ideas remain influential in Hinduism.

Texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" are less clearly defined and may include numerous post-Vedic works, such as later Upanishads and Sutra literature (like Shrauta Sutras and Gryha Sutras), which are *smriti* texts. Together, the Vedas and these Sutras form part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus. While the production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period, additional Upanishads continued to be composed afterward. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads interpret and discuss the Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways, exploring abstract concepts such as the Absolute.