Japanese cuisine

Japanese cuisine is the collection of regional and traditional foods that have evolved in Japan over centuries of political, economic, and social change. Known as *washoku*, this traditional cooking centers on rice served with miso soup and other dishes that highlight seasonal ingredients. Typical side dishes include fish, pickled vegetables, tamagoyaki, and vegetables simmered in broth. Seafood is often grilled, but also appears raw as sashimi or sushi, while seafood and vegetables are frequently deep-fried in a light batter to make tempura. Besides rice, staple noodles like soba and udon are common, and simmered dishes such as oden (fish products in broth), sukiyaki, and nikujaga are popular.

Historically shaped by Chinese cuisine, Japanese cooking has also absorbed Western influences in modern times. Foreign-inspired dishes—especially from China—such as ramen and gyōza, along with spaghetti, curry, and hamburgers, have been adapted to local tastes and ingredients. For centuries, Buddhist teachings led many Japanese to avoid meat, but after Japan’s modernization in the 1880s, meat dishes like tonkatsu and yakiniku became common. Since then, Japanese cuisine—particularly sushi and ramen—has gained global popularity. In 2011, Japan surpassed France to have the most three-starred Michelin restaurants, and as of 2018, Tokyo holds the record for the most three-starred restaurants of any city. In 2013, Japanese cuisine was added to the UNESCO Intangible Heritage List.

Rice has long been a staple in Japan, with wheat and soybeans arriving shortly afterward; all three remain central today. When Buddhism became the official religion during the late Kofun and early Asuka periods, eating meat and fish was prohibited. In 675 AD, Emperor Tenmu banned the consumption of horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens, and subsequent emperors in the 8th and 9th centuries continued to forbid killing many animals. Yet meat persisted in some regions—pig farming thrived in Kagoshima, beef was eaten in Oumi, and deer were sacrificed in Shinto rituals in Suwa. Over time, the list of banned meats grew, banning all mammals except whale, which was classified as fish. Chopsticks arrived from China during the Asuka period but were initially used only by nobles; commoners ate with their hands because utensils were costly.

With meat scarce, Japanese cooks minimized spice use, as spices were hard to find. Pepper and garlic were employed sparingly, while sansho and black pepper were more common, used in noodle, rice, and fish dishes, and also as nourishing medicine. Fish became the main protein due to Japan’s island geography, influencing many iconic dishes. By the 9th century, grilled fish and sliced raw fish were widespread; those who could afford it ate fish at every meal, while others often went without animal protein. Traditional cooking avoided oil and fat to maintain health. Preserving fish led to sushi, which began as a method of fermenting fish in boiled rice: salted fish placed in rice underwent lactic acid fermentation, preventing spoilage. By the 15th century, advances shortened fermentation to one or two weeks, and sushi grew popular as both a meal and a snack, combining fish with rice. In the late Edo period (early 19th century), sushi without fermentation emerged, and both fermented and unfermented versions were consumed until hand-rolled and nigiri sushi were invented.

In 1854, Japan began trade deals with Western countries, and the concept of *washoku* was introduced during negotiations with the United States over a trade treaty. When Emperor Meiji took power in 1868 as part of the Meiji Restoration, the government adopted Western customs, including using animal products in food. In 1872, the new ruler held a New Year’s feast featuring European cuisine. For the first time in a thousand years, meat could be eaten publicly, and the general population began including meat in their regular diets.

The term *washoku* now refers to traditional Japanese cooking. *Kappō* (meaning “cutting and boiling meats”) is synonymous with cooking but came to denote mostly Japanese cuisine or restaurants, especially during the Meiji and Taishō eras, implying a high standard and highly trained chefs, though it is generally seen as more casual than *kaiseki*. *Kaiseki* (literally “warming stone”) is linked to the Japanese tea ceremony and is considered a simplified form of *honzen-ryōri* (formal banquet dining with multiple trays). The homophone *kaiseki ryōri* (meaning “gathering and seating”) originally referred to gatherings of haiku or renga poets, serving a simplified version of *honzen* dishes.