Battle of Tippecanoe

Prelude

In 1810, Tecumseh met Governor Harrison at Grouseland in Vincennes, demanding nullification of the Treaty of Fort Wayne and return of lands to the tribes. Harrison insisted each tribe had separate arrangements with the United States and ridiculed the idea of common land ownership. Tecumseh stated he would serve the Americans loyally if lands were returned; if not, he would seek an alliance with the British. British agents had already sought an alliance with Tecumseh, but he was reluctant because he recognized they used tribes to fight their frontier wars.

Nevertheless, after securing alliances with the Potawatomi and Odawa and contacting the Iowa, he traveled to Canada in November 1810 to meet with British and Canadian officials. In 1811, Harrison blamed the Shawnee for frontier murders and a theft of salt, and sent letters to Washington requesting permission to move against them, writing that in Indian warfare there was no security but in offensive measures. He summoned Tecumseh to a meeting that summer; Tecumseh again proved an eloquent speaker but the meeting was unproductive. Tecumseh informed Harrison he was leaving to recruit among the Muscogee and Choctaws and asked Harrison to wait upon his return before settling disputed lands, pleading for no mischief during his absence.

Tenskwatawa stayed with the Shawnee at Prophetstown, which had grown to a few hundred structures. He had around 500 warriors available, though estimates range from 350 to 1,000. The Kickapoo under Mengoatowa, Potawatomi under Waubonsie, and Winnebago under Waweapakoosa were organized into large units of 125, with smaller units of Shawnee, Wyandot and others under Roundhead. Harrison considered Tecumseh's warriors the finest light infantry in the world and noted they were better armed than most of his own force, carrying muskets, knives, tomahawks, clubs, and spears to repel bayonet charges.

Battle

Harrison’s army reached Prophetstown on November 6. He intended to talk with Tenskwatawa the next day but saw little chance of success. The troops set up camp on Burnett’s Creek in what is now Battleground, Indiana.

Acting on advice from his aide-de-camp Bartholomew, Harrison ordered the men to sleep in their clothes with weapons ready. They were arranged in pickets matching their battle positions, and despite the rain, large fires were kept burning, lighting up the whole camp. Harrison did not have any fortifications built. Two companies of sentries guarded the perimeter.

Captain Spier Spencer’s Indiana Yellow Jacket riflemen, famous for their pale buckskin uniforms, held the southern edge. The rest of the militia formed a rough rectangle along the bluff. Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bartholomew led the infantry on the front line, while regular soldiers and dragoons under Major Floyd, Major Daveiss, and former congressman Captain Benjamin Parke stayed in reserve.

Years later, in 1816, Tenskwatawa told Michigan Governor Lewis Cass that he had not ordered the attack, blaming Ho-Chunk warriors instead. A Kickapoo chief later informed British agent Matthew Elliot that the shooting of two Winnebago men by the sentries had angered the Indians and prompted the assault. Tenskwatawa’s followers feared the nearby army and expected an attack.

They had started fortifying their town but hadn’t finished. During a council on the night of November 6, Tenskwatawa apparently agreed to strike first and to send a party to kill Harrison in his tent. He promised his warriors that his spells would protect them and confuse the Americans.

Warriors began surrounding the camp, searching for a way in. A wagon driver named Ben, who had deserted to the Shawnees during the march, offered to lead a group to Harrison’s tent late that night, but sentries captured him, brought him back, and tied him up. Harrison later pardoned him despite a treason conviction.

Aftermath

The day after the battle, American wounded were loaded onto wagons and brought to Vincennes, arriving at Fort Harrison about six days later. They boarded boats for the return on the river, arriving November 18, when the militia was released. Eustis replied demanding to know why Harrison had not taken adequate precautions in fortifying his camp; Harrison replied he considered the position strong enough without fortification. Newspapers initially carried little information, focused on the Napoleonic Wars.

An Ohio newspaper printed dispatches from Kentucky and characterized the battle as a defeat for the United States. Shocked at the loss of Major Daveiss, Kentucky papers criticized Harrison, and one ran a front-page lament. Eastern coverage was critical; the Long Island Star wrote that Harrison's account with the Indians was not very satisfying.

Historians have long believed Tecumseh was furious with Tenskwatawa for losing the battle and threatened to kill him. Tenskwatawa lost prestige and no longer served as confederacy leader; several Native leaders claimed his influence was destroyed, though some accounts said he was persecuted. Historians Alfred A. Cave and Robert Owens explain that Native Americans were trying to mislead Harrison to calm the situation, and Tenskwatawa continued to play an important role.

Harrison claimed a decisive victory, but some modern historians raise doubts. According to Alfred Cave, none of the contemporaneous reports from Indian agents, traders, and public officials confirm that Harrison won a decisive victory. The defeat was a setback for Tecumseh's confederacy, though they rebuilt Prophetstown and native violence increased. Adam Jortner says the battle was a disaster for both sides, except in strengthening Tenskwatawa's religious movement.

Memorial

After the Battle of Tippecanoe, Congress voted to thank all participants. William Henry Harrison was originally named in that resolution, but his name was cut before it passed. Harrison took this as a personal slight, believing Congress meant he alone was undeserving of praise, and he felt it subjected him to public scorn and disrespect. Following the battle, a man named Boyd stirred up controversy by claiming the militia would have been crushed without the regular army, and he openly doubted Harrison’s ability to lead.

Harrison did eventually receive the Thanks of Congress and a Congressional Gold Medal in 1818 for his victory at the Battle of the Thames. Several Indiana counties—Bartholomew, Daviess, Spencer, Tipton, and Warrick—were named for American soldiers who fought at Tippecanoe. During his 1835 presidential campaign, Harrison returned to the site and urged the creation of a memorial. John Tipton bought the land and gave it to the state on November 7, 1836, exactly twenty-five years after the battle.

In 1908, the Indiana General Assembly built an 85-foot obelisk there. The battlefield became a National Historic Landmark on October 9, 1960. About 10,000 people attended the 150th anniversary in 1961. The site later declined, and the Tippecanoe County Historical Association now cares for it and its museum.

Did You Know?

• William Henry Harrison was appointed governor of the newly formed Indiana Territory in 1800 and negotiated land cession treaties including the Treaty of Fort Wayne, acquiring 3 million acres.
• Tecumseh opposed the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne, believing land was owned in common by all tribes and could not be sold without full agreement.
• Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet, was a spiritual leader advocating a return to traditional ancestral ways.