Treaty of London (1871)

Did You Know?

• The Treaty of Berlin (1878) maintained the Treaty of London (1871) in all provisions not abrogated or modified by its own stipulations.
• Despite public pressure, Gladstone rejected military preparations and prioritised negotiations, supported by pacifists like John Bright.
• The London Conference (1871) formally abrogated the Black Sea clauses but reaffirmed the inviolability of treaties.

Treaty of Paris 1856, Art 11−14 (The Black Sea)

The 1856 Treaty of Paris had neutralised the Black Sea, formally and in perpetuity interdicting its waters and ports to the flag of war of any power, with limited exceptions. Article XI declared the Black Sea neutralised and open only to merchant shipping. Article XIII required Russia and the Ottoman Empire not to establish or maintain military-maritime arsenals on the Black Sea coast. Article XIV allowed only light vessels for coastal service, as set by a special convention that could not be altered without the consent of all signatory powers. Russia, instigated by Prussia, denounced these clauses on 31 October 1870, basing its decision on the clausula rebus sic stantibus, after France had been defeated by Prussia. Scholars such as James Brown Scott interpreted this denunciation as a breach of Article XIV, contradicting the principle that no power can free itself from treaty engagements without the consent of the contracting parties. Conversely, Mathew Smith Anderson characterised the demilitarisation as extremely harsh and unprecedented, comparing it to the restrictions imposed on Germany in 1919.

Treaty of London, 1871

The Treaty of London abrogated Articles XI, XIII, and XIV of the 1856 Treaty of Paris, as well as the special convention annexed to Article XIV, replacing them with a new article. It maintained the principle of closing the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus as established in 1856, but granted the Sultan power to open the Straits in peacetime to warships of friendly and allied powers if he judged it necessary to secure the execution of the 1856 treaty's stipulations.

British Reaction

The British government under Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone faced public agitation stoked by media and political opponents after Russia's unilateral denunciation. The British press and segments of the political elite condemned the move as a breach of treaty and demanded a hardline stance. Conservative newspapers such as the Standard and the Morning Post denounced the repudiation as an attack on the sanctity of international treaties, though this outrage was selective given that the Treaty of Paris had been a diktat imposed on Russia after its defeat in the Crimean War. Even British politicians like Lord Russell admitted the clauses had been unrealistic. Benjamin Disraeli and his supporters instrumentalised the Crimean War to smear Gladstone's government as weak, invoking the blood sacrifice of British soldiers while ignoring domestic controversy over that war. The Times and Pall Mall Gazette framed the crisis as an existential threat, though the clauses primarily concerned Ottoman interests. Queen Victoria personally intervened, urging restraint and condemning the public frenzy as irresponsible.

Bismarck’s Assessment

Bismarck, who proposed the conference, reflected in his memoirs that the personal sentiments of Alexander II, including his familial affection for King Wilhelm I of Prussia and his anti-French stance, provided assurance to Prussia. He considered the Black Sea restrictions the most inept provisions of the Paris Peace, arguing that a nation of a hundred million could not perpetually be denied sovereignty over its own coasts. Bismarck noted that Prince Gorchakov only reluctantly engaged with proposals Bismarck explored in this direction, and that the dispatch of 31 October 1870 stemmed from Prussian instigation. Bismarck emphasised that Prussia bypassed Gorchakov's pathological vanity to advance the initiative, leveraging the geopolitical moment to strengthen Prussia's alliance with Russia while maintaining British neutrality.