Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine–Central Powers)

Did You Know?

• The treaty was signed at Brest-Litovsk, now Brest, Belarus.
• The Ukrainian delegation initially included Mykhailo Poloz alongside Holubovych, Liubynsky, Sevriuk, and Levytsky.
• After the signing, an army of over 450,000 Central Powers troops entered Ukraine, and the Tsentralna Rada returned to Kiev on 2 March.

Background

The Third Universal of the Ukrainian Central Rada on 20 November 1917 proclaimed the Ukrainian People's Republic, with elections for a Constituent Assembly set for 9 January 1918. On 17 December 1917, Vladimir Lenin issued an ultimatum accusing the Central Rada of disorganising the front and sheltering enemies, demanding a response within twenty-four hours. The British and French Empires refused to recognise Ukrainian sovereignty, viewing it as part of Russia, so the Central Powers seized the opportunity to gain an ally. Austria-Hungary, though nearing military victory in late 1917, faced desperate food shortages: Hungary had supplied 65% of Cisleithania's cereal imports before the war, but by 1917 Hungarian grain and flour exports to Austria had fallen to 2.4% of the pre-war average, leaving the Austrian civilian population starving.

Peace negotiations

Peace negotiations began on 3 December 1917, initiated by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic under Leon Trotsky. An armistice was signed on 15 December 1917, taking effect on 17 December. On 1 January 1918, a Ukrainian delegation led by Vsevolod Holubovych arrived at Brest-Litovsk. Trotsky's delegation recognised the UPR delegation on 10 January 1918, and Austrian Count Ottokar Czernin did so on 12 January. Czernin and Hungarian diplomat Csáky refused to discuss Galicia, Bucovina, or Subcarpathian Rus, but acknowledged Ukrainian claims to Kholm Governorate and Podlachia, provoking Polish protests. The Ukrainian delegation returned to Kiev on 20 January, and the Central Rada proclaimed a fully sovereign state on 25 January. A new delegation headed by Oleksandr Sevriuk was sent, as Bolshevik revolts forced the UPR to seek foreign aid while Austria-Hungary faced severe food shortages.

Terms

The treaty recognised the Ukrainian People's Republic's western boundary as the 1914 Austro-Hungarian–Russian line, excluding Ukrainian Galicia. The northern boundary ran through Tarnogród, Biłgoraj, Szczebrzeszyn, Krasnystaw, Radzyń Podlaski, Międzyrzec Podlaski, Sarnaki, Kamyanyets, and Pruzhany, with exact limits to be set by a mixed commission based on ethnicity and inhabitants' will. A 1916 Austrian census in the disputed counties showed the Catholic population at 65–85% and Polish speakers at 78–98%, while Orthodox were 2–10% and Ruthenian speakers 0–3%. The treaty provided for evacuation of occupied regions, diplomatic relations, mutual renunciation of war reparations, return of prisoners of war, exchange of interned civilians, and resumption of economic relations. A secret agreement between Austria-Hungary and the UPR promised to unify eastern Galicia and Bukovina into one crownland by 31 July 1918, but Austria-Hungary annulled it on 4 July, officially due to insufficient grain deliveries, though Polish pressure and disclosure of the secret by Sevriuk were likely factors.

Aftermath

The treaty provoked immediate opposition among Poles in Austria-Hungary. Polish politicians paralysed the Austrian Parliament, civil servants struck, and spontaneous demonstrations occurred. The Polish Auxiliary Corps broke through front lines after the Battle of Rarańcza to join Polish forces in the Russian Civil War. Vienna withdrew from parts of the treaty on 4 March 1918, but the damage to Polish loyalty was irreparable, discrediting pro-Habsburg factions and ending any viable Austro-Polish solution. The treaty brought German and Austro-Hungarian military aid that cleared Bolshevik forces from Ukraine by April 1918, but the Entente suspended relations with the UPR. The Central Powers' forces were soon seen as occupiers; in late April, German commander Hermann von Eichhorn subjected Ukrainians to German military courts, and German soldiers arrested two ministers. On 29 April, General Pavlo Skoropadskyi declared himself hetman. The Treaty of Rapallo (1922) cancelled Germany's commitments, Austria-Hungary's disintegration annulled its obligations, and Turkey renounced the treaty in 1922.