Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire was an early modern state that ruled over much of South Asia. At its greatest extent, it reached from the edges of the Indus River Basin in the west, through northern Afghanistan and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of modern Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the Deccan Plateau uplands in southern India.

The empire is traditionally considered to have begun in 1526, when Babur, a ruler from present-day Uzbekistan, defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at the First Battle of Panipat. He was aided by the Safavid and Ottoman Empires and then swept across northern India. However, the empire’s lasting structure is often dated to around 1600, under Babur’s grandson, Akbar. This system held until about 1720, shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb, whose reign also saw the empire reach its largest size. After that, Mughal control shrank to the area around Old Delhi by 1760, and the empire was formally ended by the British Raj following the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Though built through military force, the Mughal Empire did not harshly suppress the cultures and peoples it conquered. Instead, it balanced and pacified them with new administrative methods and a diverse ruling class, creating more efficient, centralized, and standardized rule. The empire’s main wealth came from agricultural taxes, introduced by Akbar. These taxes, often more than half of a peasant’s output, were paid in a regulated silver currency, which allowed farmers and artisans to access larger markets.

The relative peace of the 17th century helped fuel India’s economic growth. A growing European presence in the Indian Ocean and rising demand for Indian raw materials and finished goods brought great wealth to the Mughal court. The elite engaged in lavish spending, which supported painting, literature, textiles, and architecture, especially under Shah Jahan. UNESCO World Heritage Sites from this period include Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Humayun’s Tomb, Lahore Fort, Shalamar Gardens, and the Taj Mahal, often called “the jewel of Muslim art in India” and a universally admired masterpiece.

**Name**

The English terms Mughal, Mogul, and Moghul come from the Indo-Persian word for Mongol. However, the dynasty’s early followers were Chagatai Turks, not Mongols. In India, the term Mughal was used to distinguish them from the Afghan elite of the Delhi Sultanate, associating them with the Mongols. In the West, “Grand Mughal” and “Mughal” referred to the emperor and, by extension, the empire. This name is still debated by Indologists; Marshall Hodgson argued the dynasty should be called Timurid, Timuri, or Indo-Timurid.

The closest official name for the empire was Hindustan, recorded in the *Ain-i-Akbari*. Mughal records also called it the “dominion of Hindustan” (*Wilāyat-i-Hindustān*), “country of Hind” (*Bilād-i-Hind*), and “Sultanate of Al-Hind” (*Salṭanat(i) al-Hindīyyah*), as seen on Aurangzeb’s epitaph. Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar used “Land of Hind” (*Hindostān*) in Hindustani. Chinese chronicles of the time referred to it as Hindustan (*Héndūsītǎn*).

The Mughals called their dynasty *Gurkani* (*Gūrkāniyān*), a reference to their descent from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur, who took the title *Gūrkān* (“son-in-law”) after marrying a Chinggisid princess.

**History**

**Babur and Humayun (1526–1556)**

Babur (ruled 1526–1530) founded the Mughal Empire. He was a Central Asian ruler descended from Timur on his father’s side and from Genghis Khan on his mother’s. His father’s line came from the Turkicized Barlas tribe, of Mongol origin. After losing his ancestral lands in Central Asia, Babur turned to India. He based himself in Kabul and moved south through the Khyber Pass into India. In 1526, at the First Battle of Panipat, his forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi. Despite being outnumbered, Babur used firearms and cannons to break Ibrahim’s army, expanding his rule to the mid Indo-Gangetic Plain. After the battle, the Mughal center moved to Agra. A year later, at the Battle of Khanwa near Agra, Babur’s Timurid forces defeated the combined Rajput armies of Rana Sanga of Mewar, using traditional flanking tactics with his native cavalry.

Constant warfare prevented Babur from solidifying his gains in India. This instability became clear under his son, Humayun (ruled 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by the rebel Sher Shah Suri (ruled 1540–1545). Humayun’s time in Persia created diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal courts and increased Persian cultural influence in the later restored empire. He returned from Persia in 1555 and restored Mughal rule in parts of India, but died in an accident the following year.

**Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707)**

Akbar (ruled 1556–1605), born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad in Umarkot Fort, was the son of Humayun and Hamida Banu Begum, a Persian princess. He took the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped stabilize the Mughal Empire in India. Through various wars, Akbar expanded the empire in all directions, controlling almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Deccan.