1851 French coup d'état

Causes

Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was elected President of France in 1848 with 74% of the vote, supported by the Party of Order. He encouraged anti-parliament newspapers and gained support from 150 members of Parliament. The constitution barred an incumbent president from re-election, forcing the end of his rule in December 1852.

He spent the first half of 1851 trying to amend the constitution through Parliament, traveling and organizing petitions. Two-thirds of the General Council supported him, but in the Assembly, supporters of the Duke of Orléans allied with the far left to oppose his plans. In January 1851, Parliament voted no confidence in his ministry, and on 19 July it refused his constitutional reform and abolished universal male suffrage.

Preparations for the coup

Planning began on 20 August 1851 at Saint-Cloud, involving Jean-Gilbert Victor Fialin, Charles de Morny, and General Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud. He placed General Magnan as Commander of the Troops of Paris and Maupas as Prefect of Police. The operation was named Rubicon, alluding to Julius Caesar, and set for 2 December, the anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation and Austerlitz.

The coup of 2 December 1851

On the morning of 2 December, troops under Saint-Arnaud occupied strategic points in Paris, and top opposition leaders were arrested. Six edicts dissolved the National Assembly, restored universal male suffrage, and announced a new constitution. Parliamentarians took refuge in the 20th arrondissement mayor's office, where 220 voted to oust Louis-Napoleon; they were soon arrested. An insurrection led by Victor Hugo and Victor Schoelcher erupted but was suppressed.

On 3 December, Jean-Baptiste Baudin was killed, and on 4 December about 200 more died. Victor Hugo later described arbitrary killings of women and children. By evening, the revolt in Paris was over.

Peace returns and aftermath

Generals Vaillant and Harispe became Marshals of France on 11 December. A referendum on 20–21 December recorded 7,145,000 votes for acceptance and 600,000 against, though dissidents like Victor Hugo questioned the tally. A new constitution adopted in January 1852 expanded presidential powers, with a 10-year term and no term limits, and gave the president legislative initiative.

Bonaparte was automatically reelected. In less than a year, after another referendum on 7 November 1852, the Second French Empire was proclaimed on 2 December, and Louis-Napoléon became Napoleon III. The 1851 constitution concentrated so much power that when the Empire was proclaimed, the only substantive changes were replacing 'president' with 'emperor' and making the post hereditary.

Did You Know?

• The coup triggered revolts in 32 departments, and the department of Basses-Alpes declared itself administered by a 'Committee of Resistance'.
• Victor Hugo fled to Brussels, then Jersey, and finally settled on Guernsey, where he lived in exile until Napoleon III's downfall in 1870.
• The Italian journalist Ferdinando Petruccelli della Gattina was among the rebels and was expelled from France.