Goddess

A goddess is a female deity. In certain faiths, a sacred female figure is central to prayer and worship. For instance, Shaktism, one of the three major Hindu sects, considers the Supreme Goddess (Mahamaya) the ultimate source of all reality. In some Tantric Shaivism traditions, the ultimate principle is the pair of Shiva and Shakti, where the goddess embodies active, creative divine power. In Vajrayana Buddhism, ultimate reality is frequently understood as two principles represented by two deities in union (yab yum), symbolizing the non-duality of perfect wisdom (female) and skillful compassion (male). In monotheistic faiths, a single female figure may simply be called god, as there is no need to differentiate by gender or use a diminutive. An experiment using psychedelics on religious leaders from diverse groups found that the divine they encountered was generally experienced as feminine.

Polytheistic religions, including Polytheistic reconstructionists, honor multiple goddesses and gods, viewing them as separate beings. These deities may belong to a pantheon, or different regions may have their own tutelary goddesses. In many cultures, goddesses are often linked to literal or metaphorical pregnancy or to feminine roles associated with how women and girls are perceived or expected to behave, such as spinning, weaving, beauty, love, sexuality, motherhood, domesticity, creativity, and fertility (as seen in ancient mother goddess cults). Many major goddesses are also connected to magic, war, strategy, hunting, farming, wisdom, fate, earth, sky, power, laws, justice, and more. Some themes considered negative in their cultural contexts, like discord or disease, are also associated with certain goddesses. There are as many differently described goddesses as there are male, shapeshifting, devilish, or neuter gods.

The noun "goddess" is a secondary formation, combining the Germanic "god" with the Latinate suffix "-ess." It first appeared in Middle English around 1350. This follows a linguistic precedent in languages such as Egyptian, Classical Greek, and several Semitic languages, which add a feminine ending to the word for god. Occasionally, the root term is used without the secondary ending.

In ancient Sumer, Inanna was the most worshipped goddess, later syncretized with the East Semitic Ishtar. Other Mesopotamian goddesses include Ninhursag, Ninlil, Antu, and Gaga. In ancient Egypt, goddesses include those of the Heliopolitan Ennead (Tefnut, Nut, Nephthys, Isis) and the Hermopolitan Ogdoad (Naunet, Amaunet, Kauket, Hauhet), originally a cult of Hathor, as well as Satis and Anuket of the Elephantine triad. Canaanite goddesses include Ba`alat Gebal, Astarte, and Anat. In Anatolia, Arinniti was the Hittite sun goddess and patron of the empire; Cybele (originally Hittite Kubaba) influenced Artemis as the Lady of Ephesus; Hebat was the mother goddess of the Hittite pantheon and wife of Teshub; and Leto was a mother goddess in Lykia, main goddess of the Lykia League capital. In pre-Islamic Mecca, the goddesses Uzza, Manāt, and al-Lāt were known as "daughters of god." Uzzā was worshipped by the Nabataeans, equated with Aphrodite, Urania, Venus, and Caelestis. Each had a separate shrine near Mecca, and Uzzā was invoked for protection by the Quraysh. At the Battle of Uhud in 624 AD, the Quraysh war cry was "O people of Uzzā, people of Hubal!" According to Ibn Ishaq's controversial account of the Satanic Verses, these verses once endorsed them as intercessors but were later abrogated. Most Muslim scholars consider the story implausible, while Western scholars are divided. The Quran (Q53:19-31) warns against trusting the intercession of female deities, especially "the daughters of god."

Among Indo-European traditions, pre-Christian and pre-Islamic goddesses include Indian figures: Agneya (goddess of fire), Prithivi (Earth, also a goddess), Ushas (main Rigvedic goddess of dawn), and Varuni (goddess of water). Iranian goddesses include Anahita (divinity of waters, fertility, healing, beauty, wisdom), Ashi (fertility and fortune), Daena (insight, revelation, conscience), and Spenta Armaiti (earth, Mother Nature, devotion). In Greco-Roman tradition, the Eleusinian Mysteries featured Baubo (mirth), Demeter (harvest), and Persephone (spring, queen of the Underworld). Greek muses include Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), and others.