First Sino-Japanese War

The First Sino-Japanese War, fought from July 25, 1894, to April 17, 1895, pitted the Qing dynasty of China against the Empire of Japan, with control over Korea as the central issue. In China, it is often called the Jiawu War. After about seven months of steady Japanese victories on land and at sea, and the fall of the ports of Lüshunkou (Port Arthur) and Weihaiwei, the Qing government asked for peace in February 1895. Two months later, the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed, ending the conflict.

During the late 1800s, Korea was still a tributary state of the Qing, while Japan saw it as a place for imperial expansion. In June 1894, the Qing sent around 2,700 to 2,800 soldiers to Korea at the request of King Gojong to help put down the Tonghak Peasant Revolution. Japan saw this as a breach of the 1885 Convention of Tientsin, which said both sides had to tell each other about any military moves near Korea. In response, Japan landed 8,000 troops at Incheon. This force moved into Seoul, took control of the Korean king, and on July 23, 1894, set up a pro-Japanese government after occupying Gyeongbokgung. The Qing decided to pull their troops out, but they refused to recognize the new government, which had given the Japanese army the right to push the Qing’s Huai Army out of Korea. Around 3,000 Qing soldiers stayed in Korea, but they could only get supplies by sea. On July 25, the Japanese Navy won the Battle of Pungdo and sank the steamer *Kowshing*, which was carrying 1,200 Qing reinforcements. A formal declaration of war came on August 1.

After the Battle of Pyongyang on September 15, Qing forces pulled back into Manchuria, letting Japan take over Korea. Two days later, the Beiyang Fleet lost badly at the Battle of the Yalu River, and its surviving ships fled to Port Arthur. In October 1894, the Japanese Army moved into Manchuria and captured Port Arthur on November 21. Japan then took Weihaiwei on the Shandong Peninsula on February 12, 1895, giving them control of the routes to Beijing. The Qing court started peace talks with Japan in early March. The war ended with the Treaty of Shimonoseki on April 17, which forced the Qing to pay a huge indemnity and give up the island of Taiwan. Japan also gained a dominant position in Korea.

The war showed that the Qing dynasty’s efforts to modernize its military and protect its power had failed, especially next to Japan’s successful Meiji Restoration. For the first time, East Asia’s regional leadership shifted from China to Japan, and the Qing dynasty’s reputation—along with China’s classical traditions—took a heavy hit. Inside China, the loss sparked a series of political upheavals led by figures like Sun Yat-sen and Kang Youwei, which eventually led to the 1911 Revolution and the end of dynastic rule.

**Names**

In China, the war is usually called the War of Jiawu, a name that points to the year 1894 under the traditional sexagenary cycle. In Japan, it is the Japan–Qing War. In Korea, where much of the fighting happened, it is the Qing–Japan War. In the Western world, it is called the First Sino-Japanese War, to set it apart from the Second Sino-Japanese War (1931–1945).

**Background**

Japan’s long policy of isolation under the Edo-period shōguns ended in 1854 with the Convention of Kanagawa, which opened the country to trade. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868 and the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, the new Meiji government started reforms to centralize and modernize Japan. They sent delegations and students around the world to learn Western arts and sciences, aiming to make Japan an equal to Western powers. These changes turned Japan from a feudal society into a modern industrial state. The Meiji government focused on strengthening the military with Western training and technology, building a powerful navy and a well-equipped army. Japan’s economy also grew, with new railways, telegraph lines, and factories, which boosted industrial growth and military strength.

At the same time, the Qing dynasty tried its own reforms in response to internal rebellions and outside threats. The Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1895) aimed to modernize the Qing military and industry by adopting Western technology and techniques. But the movement faced major problems, including bureaucratic resistance, corruption, and a lack of central coordination. These issues made the reforms less effective and kept China from reaching the same level of modernization and industrialization as Japan. So, by the time of the First Sino-Japanese War, China was still mostly an agrarian society with a weak military, unable to match Japan’s rapidly modernizing forces.

**Korean politics**

In January 1864, King Cheoljong died without a male heir, and under Korean succession rules, King Gojong took the throne at age 12. Since he was too young to rule, his father, Yi Ha-ŭng, became the Daewongun, or lord of the great court, and governed as regent. The title Daewongun originally meant any person who was not the king but whose son became king. Once in power, the Daewongun started reforms meant to strengthen the monarchy at the expense of the yangban, the traditional aristocratic class.