Sun Tzu
Master Sun: legendary strategist of ancient China
Sun Tzu (孫子) was a Chinese military figure, strategist, philosopher, and writer active during the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC). He is traditionally named as the author of *The Art of War*, a classic Chinese text on military strategy from the Warring States period, though the earliest parts of the work likely date from at least a century after his lifetime.
The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian, along with other traditional Chinese historians, placed Sun Tzu as a minister to King Helü of Wu and dated his life to 544–496 BC. The name "Sun Tzu" is an honorific meaning "Master Sun." His birth name was reportedly Sun Wu, and he is posthumously known by his courtesy name Changqing. Traditional accounts claim that his descendant Sun Bin also wrote a military treatise, also called *The Art of War*. Because both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as "Sun Tzu" in classical Chinese texts, some historians considered them the same person until Sun Bin's treatise was rediscovered in 1972.
The earliest account of Sun Tzu’s life appears in Sima Qian’s *Shiji* (Records of the Grand Historian), written around 97 BC. It states that Sun Tzu was born in Qi (modern Shandong) near the end of the Spring and Autumn period (776–471 BC) and had the courtesy name "Wu." Scholar Mair considers this biography "essentially fictional." Later Tang dynasty documents, such as the *Yuanhe Xingzuan* (812 AD) by Lin Bao, claim that Sun Tzu’s descendants lived in Le'an from the Han dynasty, but provide no evidence. No pre-Han places or governmental units called "Le'an" existed, and Mair finds it "impossible to bridge the gap of well over a thousand years" between the Spring and Autumn period and these Tang records. The location of Le'an in modern China is unclear; the Le'an genealogy in the *New Book of Tang* has been linked to Shandong counties Boxing and Huimin, but evidence for either is insufficient.
The *Shiji* biography recounts how King Helü of Wu, after hearing of Sun Wu’s *Art of War*, summoned him and asked him to demonstrate his ability to train soldiers by training the king’s harem of 180 concubines. Sun Tzu divided them into two companies, appointed the two most favored concubines as commanders, and gave orders. When the concubines laughed instead of obeying, Sun Tzu executed them over the king’s protests. The remaining "soldiers" then behaved, and the king appointed Sun Wu as a general. He later led Wu to victory against the larger state of Chu at the Battle of Boju in 506 BC. Later accounts also link Sun Tzu with Wu Zixu, a refugee from Chu credited with authoring the *Wuzi*, another ancient military text, who reportedly introduced Sun Wu to King Helu.
Beginning in the 12th century (Song dynasty), Chinese scholars started doubting Sun Tzu’s historical existence. Song scholar Ye Shi (1150–1223) noted that the *Zuo Zhuan*, which mentions most notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period and provides a detailed account of the Battle of Boju, does not mention Sun Tzu at all, despite Sima Qian’s claim that Sun Tzu proved his theories effective there. The name "Sun Wu" does not appear in any text before the *Records of the Grand Historian* and may be an invented descriptive cognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior"—the surname "Sun" can be glossed as "fugitive," while "Wu" means "martial, valiant" or, in a Jianghuai dialect, "knight," corresponding to Sunzi’s role as the hero’s doppelgänger in the story of Wu Zixu.
The earliest parts of *The Art of War* likely date from at least a century after Sun Tzu. Anachronisms in the text include terms, technology (such as crossbows), philosophical ideas, events, and military techniques unavailable to Sun Wu. No records of professional generals exist from the Spring and Autumn period; they appear only from the Warring States period, casting doubt on Sun Tzu’s rank and generalship. Since the 12th century, most scholars from the Song and Qing dynasties, along with modern Chinese, Japanese, and Western scholars, follow Ye Shi in dating the text to the beginning of the Warring States period. This later dating was supported by the 1972 discovery of bamboo slips at Yinque Shan in Shandong, sealed between 134 and 118 BC, containing about one-third of the chapters of the modern *Art of War*, with very close textual matches.
Another text found in the same collection was *Sun Bin’s Military Methods*, a lost work attributed to one of Sun Wu’s descendants in Han dynasty bibliographies. Because of its close relationship with *The Art of War*, *Military Methods* provides important context for the body of military thought in Chinese late antiquity.
- born
- 544–496 BC (traditional dating)
- died
- Unknown
- field
- Military strategy, philosophy
- nationality
- Chinese (Eastern Zhou period)
- known_for
- Author of The Art of War
Lore & Background
The earliest account of Sun Tzu's life is a short biography in Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) written around 97 BC by Sima Qian. It states that Sun Tzu was born in Qi—now in modern Shandong—near the end of the Spring and Autumn period, and had the courtesy name of 'Wu.' Mair considers the biography to be 'essentially fictional.' Sun Tzu is also mentioned in later Tang dynasty-period documents. The Shiji biography consists of an account of how King Helü of Wu, having heard of Sun Wu's Art of War, summoned him to the palace and asked him to demonstrate his ability to train soldiers by training the king's harem of 180 concubines into soldiers. Sun Tzu was said to have divided them into two companies, appointing the two concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders, and proceeded to give them orders, which they ignored, instead breaking out into laughter. Over the king's protestations, Sun Tzu then had the two concubines executed, at which the rest of the 'soldiers' began to behave at once, and the king appointed Sun Wu as a general. He went on to lead the state of Wu to victory against the much larger state of Chu during the Battle of Boju in 506 BC. Later accounts also associate Sun Tzu with Wu Zixu. Beginning in the 12th century (during the Song dynasty), several Chinese scholars began to doubt the historical existence of Sun Tzu. During the Song dynasty, Ye Shi (1150–1223) noticed that the Zuo Zhuan, which mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period, does not mention Sun Tzu at all despite the fact that Sima Qian had claimed in the Records of the Grand Historian that Sun Tzu had proved on the battlefield that his theories were effective at the Battle of Boju. The name 'Sun Wu' (孫武) does not appear in any text prior to the Records of the Grand Historian, and may have been an invented descriptive cognomen meaning 'the fugitive warrior.' Furthermore, the earliest parts of The Art of War probably date to at least a century after him. Anachronisms in The Art of War include terms, technology (such as anachronistic crossbows), philosophical ideas, events, and military techniques that should not have been available to Sun Wu. Additionally, there are no records of professional generals during the Spring and Autumn period; these are only extant from the Warring States period, so there is doubt as to Sun Tzu's rank and
Reader's Guide
The Art of War, traditionally ascribed to Sun Tzu, is a Classical Chinese text dating from the Warring States period. The work is composed of 13 chapters, each of which is devoted to a different set of skills or arts related to warfare and how they apply to military strategy and tactics. The book further outlines theories of battle, but it also advocates diplomacy and the cultivation of relationships with other nations as essential to the health of a state. In addition, Taoist rhetoric is a component incorporated into the Art of War. According to Steven C. Combs in 'Sun-zi and the Art of War: The Rhetoric of Parsimony', warfare is 'used as a metaphor for rhetoric, and that both are philosophically based arts.' Combs writes: 'Warfare is analogous to persuasion, as a battle for hearts and minds.' Combs compares Taoist and Aristotelian rhetoric, notably for the differences in persuasion. Taoist rhetoric in The Art of War is described as 'peaceful and passive, favoring silence over speech.' Frugal behavior, which is emphasized extensively in The Art of War as avoiding confrontation and being spiritual in nature, shapes basic principles in Taoism.
Did You Know?
- Sun Tzu's birth name was said to be Sun Wu, and he is posthumously known by his courtesy name Changqing.
- The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian placed Sun Tzu as a minister to King Helü of Wu and dated his lifetime to 544–496 BC.
- Traditional accounts state that the general's descendant Sun Bin wrote a treatise on military tactics, also titled The Art of War.
- The bamboo slips of The Art of War discovered at Yinque Shan in 1972 had been sealed between 134 and 118 BC.
- The Zuo Zhuan, which provides a much more detailed account of the Battle of Boju, does not mention Sun Tzu at all.
Notable Quotes (Wikiquote)
"Original text in Traditional American wikisource:zh:孫子兵法, English translation wikisource:The Art of War (Sun) by w:Lionel Giles." — Sun Tzu "The art of war is of vital importance to the State. It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin. Hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account be neglected." — Sun Tzu "A military operation involves deception. Even though you are competent, appear to be incompetent. Though effective, appear to be ineffective." — Sun Tzu "Note: "If his forces are united, separate them" is also interpreted: "If sovereign and subject are in accord, put division between them." — Sun Tzu
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