Referendum
A direct vote by the electorate on a proposal or law.
A referendum, also called a plebiscite or ballot measure, is a direct vote by the people on a specific proposal, law, or political issue, bypassing their elected representatives. The outcome can be binding, meaning it enacts a new policy, or advisory, serving as a large-scale opinion poll. The word "referendum" likely first appeared in the Swiss canton of Graubünden during the 1500s.
The term comes from the Latin verb *referre* ("to carry back"). In Latin, "referendum" is a gerundive adjective, not a noun, so it must attach to a noun—for example, *propositum quod referendum est populo* ("a proposal which must be carried back to the people"). Adding the verb "to be" to a gerundive implies necessity or compulsion. In English, "referendum" functions as a newly coined noun, not a direct Latin borrowing, so its proper plural is "referendums." Using "referenda" is grammatically unsupported in both English and Latin. The Oxford English Dictionary notes that "referendums" is logically preferable for ballots on a single issue, while "referenda" would imply multiple issues. Related terms include "agenda" (things to be driven forward), "memorandum" (things to be remembered), and "corrigenda" (things to be corrected).
"Plebiscite" comes from the Latin *plebiscita*, originally a decree of the Roman Republic's Plebeian Council. Today, the terms are often used interchangeably, though some countries distinguish them by legal consequences. In Australia, "referendum" commonly refers to a vote to change the federal constitution, and "plebiscite" to a vote that does not, but this is not strictly accurate: the 1916 conscription referendum was not constitutional, and state votes like the 2009 Western Australian daylight saving referendum are still called referendums. Australians have historically used the terms interchangeably. In Ireland, "plebiscite" described the vote to adopt the constitution, while subsequent amendments are called "referendums," as are non-constitutional bills put to the electorate.
After a decline in the mid-1900s, referendums have grown more popular since the 1970s. This rise is linked to the public's decreasing loyalty to political parties, as specific policy issues became more important than party affiliation.
Referendums can be classified in several ways. David Altman proposes four dimensions: mandatory versus optional (ad hoc); binding versus consultative; citizen-initiated (bottom-up) versus authority-initiated (top-down); and proactive (proposing change) versus reactive (preventing change).
A mandatory referendum is legally required when certain conditions are met or for specific government actions, without needing public signatures. Common types include constitutional changes (required in Australia, Ireland, Switzerland, Denmark, and 49 of 50 U.S. states, with Delaware as the exception); financial referendums (many localities require a vote for issuing bonds, raising taxes above a set level, or taking on debt—for example, California cannot borrow more than $300,000 without a public vote); international relations (Switzerland mandates referendums on treaties involving collective security or joining a supranational community, which happened only once, in a failed 1986 attempt to join the United Nations); and war referendums, a hypothetical type.
- First recorded use
- 16th century in Swiss canton of Graubünden
- Etymology
- Latin gerundive of referre, 'to carry back'
- Plural form (English)
- Referendums (logically preferable)
- Number of national referendums worldwide
- Hundreds since late 18th century
- Second most referendums
- Italy (78 national referendums)
Lore & Background
The word 'referendum' derives from the Latin gerundive of *referre*, meaning 'to carry back'. In Latin, it must be used with a noun, as in 'Propositum quod referendum est populo' ('A proposal which must be carried back to the people'). The addition of the verb 'est' denotes necessity or compulsion. Its use as a noun in English is a newly coined English noun, not a strictly grammatical Latin usage, which determines the plural form as 'referendums' in English. The use of 'referenda' as a plural is unsupportable under both Latin and English grammar rules, as it would imply a plurality of issues.
The term 'plebiscite' shares a similar modern meaning and originates from the Latin *plebiscita*, which originally referred to a decree of the Plebeian Council in the Roman Republic. While often used interchangeably with 'referendum', some countries distinguish them by legal consequences. In Australia, a 'referendum' is frequently said to be a vote to change the federal constitution, while a 'plebiscite' does not affect it, though this distinction is not historically consistent, as non-constitutional federal votes and state votes have both been called referendums. In Ireland, 'plebiscite' described the vote to adopt its constitution, but subsequent amendments are called 'referendums', as are non-constitutional polls.
The use of the referendum is thought to have originated in the Swiss canton of Graubünden as early as the 16th century. After a decline in the mid-20th century, its popularity has increased since the 1970s, attributed to the public’s dealignment with political parties and a greater focus on specific policy issues. Referendums may be binding, resulting in policy adoption, or advisory, functioning like a large opinion poll. They can be mandatory, required by law for actions such as constitutional changes, financial bonds, or international treaties, or optional. Mandatory referendums are used for constitutional amendments in countries including Australia, Ireland, Switzerland, Denmark, and 49 U.S. states. Financial referendums often require public votes for government borrowing above a set amount, as in California’s bond propositions. A hypothetical war referendum, first proposed by Immanuel Kant, would require a public vote to approve a declaration of war.
Reader's Guide
Referendums are an expression of direct democracy, but today most are understood within the context of representative democracy. They are used selectively, often on issues such as voting system changes where elected officials may lack legitimacy or inclination to act. The referendum as a political tool has increased in popularity since the 1970s, attributed to dealignment of the public with political parties, as specific policy issues became more important than party identifiers. Referendums can be classified by four dimensions: mandatory vs optional, binding vs consultative, citizen-initiated vs authorities-initiated, and proactive vs reactive. Mandatory referendums are required for certain actions like constitutional changes, while optional referendums are put to a vote as a result of a demand from authorities or citizens. The term 'plebiscite' has a similar meaning but in some countries is used differently; in Australia, 'referendum' often refers to constitutional changes, though usage is interchangeable historically, while in Ireland, 'plebiscite' referred to adopting its constitution, with subsequent amendments called 'referendums'.
Did You Know?
- The term 'referendum' is thought to have originated in the Swiss canton of Graubünden as early as the 16th century.
- The plural 'referenda' is unsupportable under both Latin and English grammar rules, as it would imply a plurality of issues.
- A mandatory referendum is required for certain government actions, such as constitutional changes, and does not require public signatures.
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