One-child policy

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Lore & Background

China's family planning policies began to be shaped by fears of overpopulation in the 1970s, and officials raised the age of marriage and called for fewer and more broadly spaced births. A near-universal one-child limit was imposed in 1980 and written into the country's constitution in 1982. Numerous exceptions were established over time, and by 1984, only about 35.4% of the population was subject to the original restriction of the policy. In the mid-1980s, rural parents were allowed to have a second child if the first was a daughter. It also allowed exceptions for some other groups, including ethnic minorities under 10 million people. In 2015 in response to demographic issues of the Chinese population, the government raised the limit to two children, and in May 2021 to three. In July 2021, it removed all limits, shortly after implementing financial incentives to encourage individuals to have additional children as well as other pronatalist policies. Implementation of the policy was handled at the national level primarily by the National Population and Family Planning Commission and at the provincial and local level by specialized commissions. Officials used pervasive propaganda campaigns to promote the program and encourage compliance. The strictness with which it was enforced varied by period, region, and social status. In some cases, women were forced to use contraception, receive abortions, and undergo sterilization. Families who violated the policy faced large fines and other penalties.

Reader's Guide

The population control program had wide-ranging social effects, particularly for Chinese women. Patriarchal attitudes and a cultural preference for sons led to the abandonment of unwanted infant girls, some of whom died and others of whom were adopted abroad. Over time, this skewed the country's sex ratio toward men and created a generation of 'missing women'. However, the policy also resulted in greater workforce participation by women who would otherwise have been occupied with childrearing, and some girls received greater familial investment in their education. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) credits the program with contributing to the country's economic ascendancy and says that it prevented 400 million births, although some scholars dispute that estimate. Some have also questioned whether the drop in birth rate was caused more by other factors unrelated to the policy. In the West, the policy has been widely criticized for human rights violations and other negative effects.

Did You Know?

• The one-child policy was formally implemented as a temporary measure on 18 September 1980.
• By 1984, only about 35.4% of the population was subject to the original one-child restriction.
• The policy was written into China's constitution in 1982.
• In July 2021, the government removed all limits on the number of children shortly after implementing financial incentives to encourage additional births.
• The Chinese Communist Party claims the program prevented 400 million births, though some scholars dispute that estimate.

From Pro-Natalism to Restriction: The Political Turning Point

Under Mao Zedong's leadership in China, the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand. Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the government mostly encouraged families to have as many children as possible, especially during the Great Leap Forward, because of Mao's belief that population growth empowered the country. The state tried to incentivize more childbirths with a variety of policies, such as the 'Mother Heroine' award, a programme inspired by a similar policy in the Soviet Union. The population grew from around 542 million in 1949 to 807 million in 1969, an average annual growth rate of about 2.45% per year. The devastating Great Chinese Famine (late 1950s to early 1960s) resulted in the deaths of approximately 30 million people. Following the famine, China's leadership saw rapid population growth as a threat to resources and development. In the early 1970s, the state introduced a set of birth planning policies calling for later childbearing, longer time spans between births, and fewer children. Men were encouraged to marry at age 25 or later, and women at age 23 or later. The authorities began encouraging one-child families in 1978, and in 1979 announced they intended to advocate for one-child families. Ma Yinchu, a founder of China's population planning theory, was also an author of the policy. On 1 June 1979, Chen Yun became the first senior leader to propose the one-child policy, saying: 'Comrade Xiannian proposed to me planning "better one, at most two". I'd say be stricter, stipulating that "only one is allowed". Prepare to be criticized by others for cutting off the offspring. But if we don't do it, the future looks grim.' Deng Xiaoping supported the policy, along with Hua Guofeng and Li Xiannian. On 15 October 1979, Deng met a British delegation led by Felix Greene in Beijing, saying 'we encourage one child per couple. We give economic rewards to those who promise to give birth to only one child.'

Enforcement, Exceptions, and the Reality on the Ground

In 1980, the central government organized a meeting in Chengdu to discuss the speed and scope of one-child restrictions. The notable aerospace engineer Song Jian was a participant; he had read The Limits to Growth and A Blueprint for Survival while visiting Europe in 1980. Along with several associates, Song determined that the ideal population of China was 700 million, and that a universal one-child policy for all would be required to meet that goal. If fertility rates remained constant at 3 births per woman, China's population would surpass 3 billion by 2060 and 4 billion by 2080. The family planning policy was formally implemented as a temporary measure on 18 September 1980. Implementation was handled at the national level primarily by the National Population and Family Planning Commission and at the provincial and local level by specialized commissions. Officials used pervasive propaganda campaigns to promote the program and encourage compliance. The strictness of enforcement varied by period, region, and social status. In some cases, women were forced to use contraception, receive abortions, and undergo sterilization. Families who violated the policy faced large fines and other penalties. By 1984, only about 35.4% of the population was subject to the original restriction of the policy. In the mid-1980s, rural parents were allowed to have a second child if the first was a daughter. It also allowed exceptions for some other groups, including ethnic minorities under 10 million people.

The Human Toll: Sex-Ratio Distortion and Shifting Gender Dynamics

The population control program had wide-ranging social effects, particularly for Chinese women. Patriarchal attitudes and a cultural preference for sons led to the abandonment of unwanted infant girls, some of whom died and others of whom were adopted abroad. Over time, this skewed the country's sex ratio toward men and created a generation of 'missing women'. However, the policy also resulted in greater workforce participation by women who would otherwise have been occupied with childrearing, and some girls received greater familial investment in their education.

Contested Legacy and the Road to Abolition

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) credits the program with contributing to the country's economic ascendancy and says that it prevented 400 million births, although some scholars dispute that estimate. Some have also questioned whether the drop in birth rate was caused more by other factors unrelated to the policy. In the West, the policy has been widely criticized for human rights violations and other negative effects. In 2015 in response to demographic issues of the Chinese population, the government raised the limit to two children, and in May 2021 to three. In July 2021, it removed all limits, shortly after implementing financial incentives to encourage individuals to have additional children as well as other pronatalist policies.