Books of Samuel

Lore & Background

The Book of Samuel is a single book in the Hebrew Bible, but in most modern translations it appears as two separate books, 1 and 2 Samuel. It forms part of the Deuteronomistic history, a sequence of books including Joshua, Judges, and Kings that together present a theological history of the Israelites. Jewish tradition attributes the book’s authorship to the prophet Samuel, with later additions by the prophets Gad and Nathan, all three of whom appear in the account of David’s reign in 1 Chronicles. Modern scholars, however, believe the entire Deuteronomistic history was compiled from multiple independent texts of varying ages. The narrative opens with Samuel’s birth and his calling by Yahweh as a boy, then follows the story of the Ark of the Covenant. It describes Israel’s oppression by the Philistines, which leads Samuel to anoint Saul as the first king of Israel. Saul proves unworthy, and God’s choice shifts to David, who defeats Israel’s enemies, purchases the threshing floor where his son Solomon will later build the First Temple, and brings the Ark to Jerusalem. Yahweh then promises David and his successors an everlasting dynasty. In the Septuagint, the Greek translation that forms the basis of Christian biblical canons, the text is divided into two books, now called the First and Second Book of Samuel.

Reader's Guide

The Books of Samuel form a key part of the Deuteronomistic history, a series that includes Joshua, Judges, and Kings, which together present a theological account of Israel under prophetic guidance. The narrative begins with the birth of Samuel and his calling by Yahweh, followed by the story of the Ark of the Covenant. It details Israel’s oppression by the Philistines, leading to Samuel’s anointing of Saul as the first king. After Saul proves unworthy, God’s choice shifts to David, who defeats Israel’s enemies, purchases the threshing floor where his son Solomon will build the First Temple, and brings the Ark to Jerusalem. Yahweh then promises David and his successors an everlasting dynasty. The text highlights themes of obedience, divine choice, and the consequences of disobedience. In Jewish tradition, the book was written by Samuel with additions by the prophets Gad and Nathan, while modern scholarship views it as a compilation of independent texts of various ages. The Septuagint divides the work into two books, a structure adopted by most Christian canons. The Jerusalem Bible organizes the material into five sections: Samuel, Samuel and Saul, Saul and David, David, and Supplementary Information.

Did You Know?

• According to Jewish tradition, the book was written by Samuel with additions by prophets Gad and Nathan.
• The only Nazirite identified in the Bible besides Samson is Samuel.
• The Philistines returned the Ark of the Covenant to Beth Shemesh after being afflicted with plagues.
• Saul's son Jonathan ate honey despite a royal decree not to eat until evening.

Position within the Prophetic Collection

The Books of Samuel occupy a place within the Nevi'im, the eight-book prophetic division that forms the middle section of the Jewish Tanakh. This three-part structure—Torah, Nevi'im, Ketuvim—comprises the twenty-four books recognized by Rabbinic Judaism. The text is written primarily in Biblical Hebrew, with select portions rendered in Aramaic. The popular scholarly position dates the canonization of the Prophets to roughly 200 BC, though this timeline is increasingly challenged by contemporary researchers. The broader canonization window is generally placed between 200 BC and 200 AD, with the Torah fixed earlier (around 400 BC) and the Writings later (perhaps 100 AD). Samuel, as a member of the prophetic division, would have been subject to this same extended period of consolidation, debate, and eventual acceptance among Jewish religious authorities.

Christian Canon and Denominational Variation

In Christian Bibles, the Books of Samuel appear within the Old Testament, the first major division of scripture. The minimum Old Testament encompasses the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible, yet these are subdivided differently across traditions: Protestant Bibles split them into thirty-nine books, while Catholic Bibles include forty-six by incorporating deuterocanonical works. The ordering of these books shifts between communities. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) formally established the seventy-three-book Catholic canon—forty-six Old Testament and twenty-seven New Testament. Before that council, regional gatherings such as Rome (382), Hippo (393), and the two Councils of Carthage (397 and 419) had already affirmed the scriptural collection. Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Assyrian churches maintain their own distinct lists, meaning Samuel's exact placement and surrounding context vary depending on which Christian community one consults.

The Fluidity of Canonization

The process by which the Books of Samuel became fixed within the Jewish scriptural collection was far less settled than later assumptions might suggest. Evidence points to a canonization window spanning from 200 BC to 200 AD, with the Prophets—Samuel's home division—traditionally dated to around 200 BC. However, this timeline, sometimes linked to a hypothetical Council of Jamnia, faces growing criticism from modern scholars. Marc Zvi Brettler has argued that Jewish scriptures outside the Torah and Prophets remained fluid, with various communities granting authority to different texts. Deuteronomy itself contains a prohibition against adding or removing, which some interpret as a restriction on future scribal editing. Meanwhile, 2 Maccabees describes Nehemiah gathering books about kings and prophets, and both Maccabean texts suggest Judas Maccabeus collected sacred writings around 167 BC—indicating that the assembly of prophetic texts like Samuel was an ongoing, contested process rather than a single definitive act.

Exclusion from the Samaritan Canon

The Samaritan community, whose distinct identity emerged following the Assyrian conquest of Samaria in 722 BC, represents a striking counterpoint to the broader biblical tradition. Samaritans regard only the Torah as inspired scripture and reject all other portions of the Bible—including the Nevi'im, where Samuel resides. They never expanded their canon by incorporating Samaritan compositions; while a Samaritan Book of Joshua exists and is held in high esteem, it is not treated as scripture. Their Pentateuch, written in the Samaritan alphabet, diverges from the Masoretic Text in both minor ways (genealogical ages) and major ones (locating Moses's receipt of the Ten Commandments on Mount Gerizim rather than Sinai). The Nablus community claims to possess the oldest surviving Torah copy, believed penned by Abisha, grandson of Aaron. For Samaritans, Samuel simply does not exist as sacred text—a position likely shared by the ancient Sadducees.