Territorial disputes in the South China Sea

Lore & Background

Claims to islands and maritime features in the South China Sea were not seriously advanced until the 19th or early 20th century. The Paracel Islands, currently occupied by the People’s Republic of China (PRC), are also contested by Taiwan (Republic of China/ROC) and Vietnam. The Spratly Islands are claimed by the PRC, Taiwan, and Vietnam, with Vietnam holding the greatest number of features and Taiwan controlling the largest, Taiping Island. Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines also claim portions of the Spratly chain. By the 1970s, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam had each militarily occupied at least one Spratly feature. By 2015, the PRC had established eight outposts in the region, Malaysia five, the Philippines eight, Taiwan one, and Vietnam 48. For decades, the Philippines and Vietnam led artificial island construction, but from 2014 to 2016 China’s pace surpassed them; by 2023, China had reclaimed roughly five square miles, with at least one artificial island housing military equipment. The disputes also involve the Scarborough Shoal, boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin, and waters near Indonesia’s Natuna Islands. An estimated US$3.36 trillion in global trade passes through the sea annually, representing a third of global maritime trade, while 80 percent of China’s energy imports and 40 percent of its total trade transit the area. Claimant states seek rights to fishing stocks, seabed oil and gas exploration, and control of strategic shipping lanes. A 2016 arbitration tribunal, without ruling on island sovereignty, found that China lacks historical title to maritime areas within its nine-dash line; both the PRC and ROC rejected the ruling. Since 2015, the United States, France, and the United Kingdom have conducted freedom of navigation operations in the region.

Reader's Guide

The disputes in the South China Sea involve conflicting claims over islands, reefs, banks, and shoals, including the Spratly Islands, Paracel Islands, Scarborough Shoal, and boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin, as well as waters near the Indonesian Natuna Islands. These claims are made by Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, the People's Republic of China (PRC), Taiwan (Republic of China/ROC), and Vietnam. The region is of immense economic significance, with an estimated US$3.36 trillion in global trade passing through annually, accounting for a third of worldwide maritime trade. For China specifically, 80 percent of its energy imports and 40 percent of its total trade transit these waters. Claimant states seek rights to fishing stocks, the exploration and potential extraction of crude oil and natural gas from the seabed, and strategic control over critical shipping lanes. The disputes also pose challenges to maritime security for shipping. Historically, serious claims to these features did not emerge until the 19th or early 20th century. By the 1970s, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam had militarily occupied Spratly Islands features. By 2015, Vietnam occupied the most features (48), while Taiwan held the largest single feature, Taiping Island. The PRC, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Taiwan also maintained outposts. From 2014 to 2016, China’s artificial island construction outpaced that of the Philippines and Vietnam, and by 2023, China had reclaimed roughly five square miles, with at least one island housing military equipment. China’s activities have been criticized as “salami slicing” or “cabbage wrapping” strategies. Since 2015, the United States, France, and the United Kingdom have conducted freedom of navigation operations in the area. A 2016 arbitration tribunal, while not ruling on island sovereignty, concluded that China lacks historical title to maritime areas within its nine-dash line, a decision rejected by both the PRC and ROC. The disputes encompass multiple overlapping claims, including the nine-dash line area, maritime boundaries off Vietnam, Borneo, and the Natuna Islands, and sovereignty over features like the Paracel Islands, Pratas Island, James Shoal, Macclesfield Bank, and the Spratly Islands. Additional disputes involve the Luzon Strait and a renewed Philippine claim over Malaysia’s state of Sabah. Historical maps from the 18t

Did You Know?

• An estimated US$3.36 trillion of global trade passes through the South China Sea annually.
• The Paracel Islands, currently occupied by China, are contested by Taiwan and Vietnam.