French conquest of Tunisia

In 1881, France took control of Tunisia in two stages. First, from late April to mid-May, French forces invaded and secured the country, leading to a treaty that made Tunisia a French protectorate. Then, from mid-June to late October, they put down a rebellion that followed. This protectorate lasted until Tunisia gained independence on March 20, 1956.

Tunisia had been part of the Ottoman Empire since 1574, but its local bey ruled with considerable independence. In the 1700s, French ships bombarded several Tunisian ports in response to piracy. By the 1800s, Tunisia had close trade ties with Europe, with French, Italian, and British communities represented by consulates. France had also lent Tunisia a large sum of money. The Tunisian government was weak: its tax system collected only a fifth of what was owed, the economy suffered from droughts and the end of corsair raids, and old trade agreements limited customs taxes to just 3%, which devastated local industries like textiles with cheap imports.

After France lost the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71, its international standing fell, and Italy and Britain tried to increase their influence in Tunisia. Britain’s representative succeeded in having Tunisia formally reinstated as an Ottoman province in 1871, though it kept its autonomy. British commercial efforts later failed, and there were land disputes involving France, Britain, and Italy. France wanted to take Tunisia to expand its hold on neighboring Algeria and to curb Italian and British influence. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, a deal gave France Tunisia while Britain got Cyprus. Soon after, raids by Khroumir rebels using Tunisian territory as a base gave France a reason to invade.

On April 28, 1881, 28,000 French troops under General Forgemol de Bostquénard entered Tunisia. The city of Bizerte surrendered on May 1 to 8,000 men led by Jules Aimé Bréart, who then marched toward Tunis. Bréart reached Tunis between May 3 and May 6, carrying the Bardo Treaty—a document establishing a French protectorate—that had been cabled to him. On May 11, Bréart, consul Théodore Roustan, and General Pierre Léon Mauraud, with an armed escort, presented the treaty to Bey Muhammad III as-Sadiq at his palace. The bey, taken by surprise, asked for time to consult his cabinet. Some advisors urged him to flee to Kairouan and resist, but he chose to accept. The treaty was signed on May 12.

A rebellion began in the south on June 10, then spread to Sfax. France sent six ironclads from Toulon to join its ships already in Tunisian waters. At Sfax, three ironclads and four gunboats were already present. The city was bombarded and captured on July 16 after heavy fighting, with 7 French dead and 32 wounded. At Kairouan, 32,000 troops, 6,000 horses, and 20,000 tons of supplies were landed. The city fell without a fight on October 28, 1881.

Britain and Germany quietly approved the invasion; Italy protested without effect. Tunisia became a French protectorate, with the French resident holding the powers of prime minister, finance controller, and military commander. In 1882, Resident Paul Cambon left the bey virtually powerless, ruling Tunisia like a colony. France built a major naval base at Bizerte in 1898. Italy later responded by invading Libya in 1911–12.