Zhao–Xiongnu War

Background

The Zhao state bordered areas inhabited by nomadic Hu tribes, with first contact in 457 BC. In 307 BC, Wuling reformed the military by adopting nomadic traits such as cavalry and horse archers. Zhao defeated the Linhu (306 BC) and Loufan (304 BC), incorporating their soldiers, and established the commanderies of Yunzhong, Yanmen, and Dai, protected by earthen barricades that later formed part of the Outer Great Wall.

Defensive approach

During the reign of King Huiwen of Zhao (298–266 BCE), the Xiongnu grew powerful and raided the northern borders. General Li Mu was appointed to oversee the borders, staying at Dai and Wild Goose Gate. He used taxes to train soldiers, killed cows daily to feed them, and personally trained them in archery, horsemanship, and beacon tower maintenance. Li decreed that during Xiongnu raids, soldiers should light beacons and retreat to fortifications without engaging, on pain of execution.

This approach caused no casualties for several years, but both the Xiongnu and Zhao soldiers considered Li a coward. King Huiwen replaced him, and the new general ordered attacks, resulting in significant setbacks and casualties.

Zhao could not cultivate land or raise animals on the border. The king ordered Li to return, but Li refused unless allowed to use his original retreat strategy. The king agreed, and for several more years there were few casualties and the Xiongnu gained nothing from raids.

Battle

Li eventually judged that Zhao had enough forces to fight. The border soldiers, no longer receiving the same rewards, were eager to engage. Li assembled an army of 1,300 war chariots, 13,000 cavalry, 50,000 infantry, and 100,000 archers.

After military exercises, he scattered the force around pastures and countryside. The Xiongnu sent a small raiding party; Li feigned defeat, abandoning a few thousand men. The Xiongnu Chanyu, hearing of this victory, launched a large-scale invasion. Li divided his army into two and ambushed the invaders, encircling them and attacking from both sides.

Thousands of Xiongnu soldiers and horses were killed. Li then attacked other Hu tribes, exterminating the Chan Lan, defeating the Donghu, and forcing the remaining Linhu to surrender. The Xiongnu Chanyu fled far away.