1904 Sasun uprising

Background

The empire wanted to prevent the formation of another semi-autonomous Armenian region in the eastern vilayets after its defeat in the First Zeitun Rebellion. In Sason, the Armenian national liberation movement recruited young Armenians. Upon investigation, a European mission concluded that Armenians were not at fault, but rather acted in self-defense. The mission called for the sultan to enforce the reforms that were previously pledged.

The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation were active in the region. The first Sasun resistance was led by the Armenian national movement's militia, which belonged to Hunchak. Conflicts continued between Armenian fedayeen and Muslim Ottomans. In spring 1902, Vahan Manvelyan was sent to Sason to negotiate a ceasefire and concentrate forces for a larger revolt.

Consolidation continued through 1902 and 1903. In May 1903, a militia led by Gorgos 'Marrik' arrived. In September, a group of 150 fedayeen was sent but almost completely destroyed at the Persian-Turkish border. In February 1903, the ARF agreed to send troops.

Armed conflicts

By the time of the uprising, Ottoman forces comprised as many as 10,000 soldiers and policemen, plus 6,000–7,000 irregular Kurdish cavalry. Armenian forces consisted of 200 guerrillas under Vahan, Hrayr, Andranik, Kevork Chavoush, Murad of Sebastia, Keri and others, with untrained peasants swelling the insurgency to 1,000. The first military action was on January 17, 1904, by Kevork Chavush against local Kurds. The western ARF and the Catholicos tried to organize diplomatic pressure.

By March 20, 1904, the Turks had finished preparations. On April 2 the Turks began an unsuccessful attack. On April 10, the Wāli of Bitlis arrived. On April 11, the second battle began; the Armenians trapped Turkish horsemen at Shenik.

On April 12, a decree from the Catholicos recommended surrender. On April 13, the Turks began a new approach; Hrayr was killed at the beginning of the battle. Fierce fighting continued. On April 14, the Turks unsuccessfully attacked again.

By April 16, residents of Ishkhanadzor retreated. On April 17, a new attack was repulsed.

On April 20, the Turks surrounded Gelieduzan with artillery; fedayeen retreated to Talvorik. Up to 20,000 people fled and were slaughtered. Talvorik held out until May 6, falling to Turkish reinforcements.

Political Roots and the Road to Uprising

The Armenian national liberation movement had deep roots in the Sason region, with both the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation operating among local communities. The first Sasun resistance had been led by Hunchak-affiliated militia, and tensions between Armenian fedayeen and Ottoman Muslim forces persisted through the early 1900s, with many Armenians forced to convert to Islam or seek protection under the Russian consulate.

In spring 1902, ARF representative Vahan Manvelyan arrived in Sason to negotiate a ceasefire and consolidate forces for a larger planned revolt alongside local activist Hrayr Tjokhk. Throughout 1902 and 1903, this consolidation continued, with additional militia groups arriving—though one contingent of 150 fedayeen under Khan and Onik was nearly annihilated by Turkish artillery at the Persian-Turkish border. By February 1903, the ARF in Sofia formally committed troops to the Sason effort, setting the stage for the confrontation that would erupt in 1904.

The Military Stalemate and Key Engagements

The Ottoman response to the growing insurgency was massive: a division of the 4th Corps blocked approaches to Sason with eight battalions later expanded to fourteen, totaling up to 10,000 regular soldiers and policemen alongside 6,000 to 7,000 irregular Kurdish cavalry. Against this, the Armenian side fielded roughly 200 guerrillas under Vahan, Hrayr, and Andranik, supplemented by untrained peasants from 21 villages, bringing the total to around 1,000.

Strategic disagreements emerged early: Andranik advocated inciting a general Armenian revolt to stretch Ottoman forces thin, while Hrayr argued that an unsupported uprising would be doomed and urged concentration on defending Sason. The first major engagement came on April 11, 1904, when approximately 7,000 Turkish horsemen entered Shenik only to be trapped between Armenian positions and snow-capped mountains. After four hours of fighting, the Turks abandoned their horses and weapons and fled into the mountains.

Diplomatic Maneuvering and International Pressure

While fighting raged in Sason, a parallel diplomatic effort unfolded among the great powers. The western ARF and the Catholicos sought to pressure Turkey through international channels. The Catholicos appealed directly to the major European powers, and English and French ambassadors in Constantinople secured audiences with the sultan. The sultan agreed to dispatch armies to restore order in Sason, and the ambassadors offered to negotiate on his behalf with the insurgents.

However, the Russian ambassador conspicuously delayed his involvement, and by the time diplomatic representatives reached Sason, military action was already at its peak. On April 12, the prior of Surb Arakelots monastery, Arakel, delivered a decree from the Catholicos recommending the Armenians surrender in exchange for amnesty. The Armenian leaders requested a delay before responding, and that night they evacuated and burned several villages in Gelieguzan.

Ultimately, a European investigative mission concluded that the Armenians had not instigated the conflict but had acted in self-defense, and it called upon the sultan to enforce the reforms he had previously pledged.

Retreat, Slaughter, and the Human Toll

The final phase of the uprising was marked by devastating losses. After Hrayr was killed at the outset of the battle for Gelieguzan on April 13, fierce hand-to-hand combat ensued, with Andranik striking the Turkish rear from the eastern side. The Turks retreated with reported losses of 136 killed, while the Armenians suffered seven dead and eight wounded. But the broader picture was catastrophic: by April 20, Turkish artillery bombardment forced the fedayeen to retreat to Talvorik, and up to 20,000 civilians—the population of five evacuated villages—fled into the mountains and the Mush plain, where they were slaughtered.

Talvorik itself held out until May 6 before falling to Turkish reinforcements, and two hundred fedayeen between Talvorik and Gelieguzan resisted until May 14. The Turkish victory was accompanied by extreme brutality, including the abduction and mutilation of women, a horror that the subsequent European mission documented in its findings.