{"https://codexery.com/economic-concepts/e/economic-concepts/debt/": {"t": "Debt", "s": "Debt is an obligation to repay borrowed money.", "i": "https://codexery.com/economic-concepts/img/economic-concepts/debt.webp", "c": "Carolina D Arbelles · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/legal-professions/e/legal-professions/legal-liability/": {"t": "Legal liability", "s": "Legal responsibility or answerability in law.", "i": "https://codexery.com/legal-professions/img/legal-professions/legal-liability.webp", "c": "Q4398124 , Goznak (Q2133605) · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/religious-practices-and-symbols/e/religious-practices-and-symbols/sacrifice/": {"t": "Sacrifice", "s": "An act or offering made to a deity."}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/meaning-of-life/": {"t": "Meaning of life", "s": "A contested concept of inherent significance in human existence."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/cicero/": {"t": "Cicero", "s": "Roman statesman, orator, and 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individualist anarchism and egoism."}, "https://codexery.com/biology-concepts/e/biology-concepts/life/": {"t": "Life", "s": "Life is a self-sustained process in matter, characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction, ending in deat"}, "https://codexery.com/origin-myths/e/origin-myths/etiology/": {"t": "Etiology", "s": "Study of causes, origins, or reasons behind phenomena."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/aristotle/": {"t": "Aristotle", "s": "Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath, founder of the Peripatetic school."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/john-stuart-mill/": {"t": "John Stuart Mill", "s": "English philosopher of liberalism."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/martin-heidegger/": {"t": "Martin Heidegger", "s": "German philosopher who developed phenomenology, hermeneutics, and existentialism, and whose work was shaped by his controversial Nazi involvement."}, "https://codexery.com/thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics/e/thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics/statistical-mechanics/": {"t": "Statistical mechanics", "s": "Statistical mechanics links microscopic particle behavior to macroscopic properties."}, "https://codexery.com/thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics/e/thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics/laws-of-thermodynamics/": {"t": "Laws of thermodynamics", "s": "Fundamental laws governing energy, heat, and entropy."}, "https://codexery.com/materials-and-states-of-matter/e/materials-and-states-of-matter/phase-transition/": {"t": "Phase transition", "s": "Physical process of transition between states of a medium."}, "https://codexery.com/physicists-and-chemists-of-the-20th-cent/e/physicists-and-chemists-of-the-20th-century/philip-w-anderson/": {"t": "Philip W. Anderson", "s": "Nobel laureate who shaped condensed matter physics and emergent phenomena."}, "https://codexery.com/political-theorists-and-social-scientist/e/political-theorists-and-social-scientists/max-weber/": {"t": "Max Weber", "s": "German sociologist and key theorist of rationalisation and authority."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophy-theory/e/philosophy-and-theory/the-protestant-ethic-and-the-spirit-of-capitalism/": {"t": "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism", "s": "Argues Protestant ethics influenced the rise of modern capitalism."}, "https://codexery.com/economic-concepts/e/economic-concepts/economic-growth/": {"t": "Economic growth", "s": "Economic growth is the increase in the quantity and quality of goods and services a society produces, measured by real GDP or GDP per capita.", "i": "https://codexery.com/economic-concepts/img/economic-concepts/economic-growth.webp", "c": "DavidMCEddy · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/evidence/": {"t": "Evidence", "s": "Evidence supports propositions, varying across fields and theories."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/time/": {"t": "Time", "s": "Time is the fourth dimension, measured by clocks and calendars."}, "https://codexery.com/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/e/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/john-rawls/": {"t": "John Rawls", "s": "American philosopher who revived normative political philosophy with A Theory of Justice.", "i": "https://codexery.com/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/img/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/john-rawls.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: John Rawls · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/jurists-and-legal-scholars/e/jurists-and-legal-scholars/jeremy-waldron/": {"t": "Jeremy Waldron", "s": "New Zealand legal philosopher and critic of judicial review.", "i": "https://codexery.com/jurists-and-legal-scholars/img/jurists-and-legal-scholars/jeremy-waldron.webp", "c": "James G. Milles · via Wikipedia: Jeremy Waldron · CC BY 2.0"}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/idea/": {"t": "Idea", "s": "A fundamental concept in philosophy, debated since antiquity."}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/meaning-philosophy/": {"t": "Meaning (philosophy)", "s": "Philosophical study of sense, reference, and significance."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/truth/": {"t": "Truth", "s": "Conformity to reality or fact, with disputed definition.", "i": "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/img/philosophical-concepts/truth.webp", "c": "Ida Roberta Bell · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/epistemology/": {"t": "Epistemology", "s": "Philosophical study of knowledge, its sources, and its limits."}, "https://codexery.com/egyptian-inventions/e/egyptian-inventions/scientific-methodology/": {"t": "Scientific methodology", "s": "Empirical method for knowledge through observation, hypothesis, and experiment."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/hypothesis/": {"t": "Hypothesis", "s": "A proposed explanation requiring testable and reproducible prediction."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy-space/e/astronomy-and-space/mercury-planet/": {"t": "Mercury (planet)", "s": "Smallest planet and closest to the Sun."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy-space/e/astronomy-and-space/orbit/": {"t": "Orbit", "s": "Curved trajectory of an object under an attracting force."}, "https://codexery.com/crime-justice/e/crime-and-justice/law/": {"t": "Law", "s": "Rules enforced by institutions to regulate behavior."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/bertrand-russell/": {"t": "Bertrand Russell", "s": "English philosopher, logician, and social reformer"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/willard-van-orman-quine/": {"t": "Willard Van Orman Quine", "s": "American logician and philosopher who developed naturalized epistemology"}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/logical-positivism/": {"t": "Logical positivism", "s": "A movement seeking scientific philosophy through empirical verification."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-traditions/e/philosophical-traditions/bias/": {"t": "Bias", "s": "A systematic deviation from accurate judgment or fairness."}, "https://codexery.com/criminal-law-procedure/e/criminal-law-and-procedure/crime/": {"t": "Crime", "s": "An unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority."}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/logical-consequence/": {"t": "Logical consequence", "s": "A fundamental concept in logic describing valid inference."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-traditions/e/philosophical-traditions/deductive-nomological-model/": {"t": "Deductive-nomological model", "s": "Formal model posing scientific explanation as deductive structure."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/critical-thinking/": {"t": "Critical thinking", "s": "Analyzing facts and arguments to form rational judgments."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/charles-sanders-peirce/": {"t": "Charles Sanders Peirce", "s": "American scientist, mathematician, logician, and philosopher; father of pragmatism"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophers-thinkers/e/philosophers-and-thinkers/karl-popper/": {"t": "Karl Popper", "s": "Philosopher of science who championed falsifiability and the open society."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-traditions/e/philosophical-traditions/cosmological-argument/": {"t": "Cosmological argument", "s": "Argument for God's existence from causation or contingency."}, "https://codexery.com/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/e/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/thomas-hobbes/": {"t": "Thomas Hobbes", "s": "English philosopher and political theorist, author of Leviathan.", "i": "https://codexery.com/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/img/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/thomas-hobbes.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Thomas Hobbes · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/gottfried-wilhelm-leibniz/": {"t": "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", "s": "German polymath and co-creator of calculus"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/inductive-reasoning/": {"t": "Inductive reasoning", "s": "Reasoning that yields probable, not certain, conclusions.", "i": "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/img/philosophical-concepts/inductive-reasoning.webp", "c": "Brian Brondel at English Wikibooks · CC BY-SA 2.5"}, "https://codexery.com/science-and-technology/e/science-and-technology/natural-science/": {"t": "Natural science", "s": "Empirical study of natural phenomena through observation and experimentation."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophers/e/philosophers/imre-lakatos/": {"t": "Imre Lakatos", "s": "Hungarian philosopher of mathematics and science."}, "https://codexery.com/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/e/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/plato/": {"t": "Plato", "s": "Foundational Western philosopher, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle.", "i": "https://codexery.com/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/img/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/plato.webp", "c": "Marie-Lan Nguyen · via Wikipedia: Plato · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/augustine-of-hippo/": {"t": "Augustine of Hippo", "s": "Influential Christian theologian and philosopher of the Patristic Period."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/ren-descartes/": {"t": "René Descartes", "s": "Father of modern philosophy and analytic geometry"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-traditions/e/philosophical-traditions/demarcation-problem/": {"t": "Demarcation problem", "s": "The enduring question of what separates science from non-science.", "i": "https://codexery.com/philosophical-traditions/img/philosophical-traditions/demarcation-problem.webp", "c": "Bus stop · CC BY-SA 3.0"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophers-and-logicians/e/philosophers-and-logicians/rudolf-carnap/": {"t": "Rudolf Carnap", "s": "German philosopher and logician, major member of the Vienna Circle and advocate of logical positivism."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/a-j-ayer/": {"t": "A. J. Ayer", "s": "English philosopher and advocate of logical positivism"}, "https://codexery.com/psychologists-and-education-theorists/e/psychologists-and-education-theorists/alfred-adler/": {"t": "Alfred Adler", "s": "Austrian medical doctor and founder of individual psychology.", "i": "https://codexery.com/psychologists-and-education-theorists/img/psychologists-and-education-theorists/alfred-adler.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Alfred Adler · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/david-hume/": {"t": "David Hume", "s": "Scottish philosopher known for empiricism and scepticism."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/herbert-a-simon/": {"t": "Herbert A. Simon", "s": "Pioneer of bounded rationality and artificial intelligence"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/isaac-newton/": {"t": "Isaac Newton", "s": "English polymath who formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation."}, "https://codexery.com/cosmology-concepts/e/cosmology-concepts/universe/": {"t": "Universe", "s": "The totality of all space, time, matter, and energy."}, "https://codexery.com/peninsulas-and-cape-landforms/e/peninsulas-and-cape-landforms/arabian-peninsula/": {"t": "Arabian Peninsula", "s": "World's largest peninsula, roughly comparable in size to India", "i": "https://codexery.com/peninsulas-and-cape-landforms/img/peninsulas-and-cape-landforms/arabian-peninsula.webp", "c": "SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, and ORBIMAGE · via Wikipedia: Arabian Peninsula · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/astrology/e/astrology/astrology/": {"t": "Astrology", "s": "Divinatory practice interpreting celestial positions to discern earthly events."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-classical-texts/e/ancient-and-classical-texts/i-ching/": {"t": "I Ching", "s": "Ancient Chinese divination text and classic of changes.", "i": "https://codexery.com/ancient-classical-texts/img/ancient-and-classical-texts/i-ching.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: I Ching · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/eastern-religions-and-philosophies/e/eastern-religions-and-philosophies/wu-wei/": {"t": "Wu wei", "s": "Ancient Chinese concept of non-doing or effortless action."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-movements-and-schools/e/philosophical-movements-and-schools/indian-philosophy/": {"t": "Indian philosophy", "s": "Indian philosophy comprises the philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent, often called darśana (meaning 'to see' or 'looking at') and also referred t"}, "https://codexery.com/buddhist-concepts-and-schools/e/buddhist-concepts-and-schools/sa-s-ra/": {"t": "Saṃsāra", "s": "Cyclic rebirth and liberation in Indian traditions."}, "https://codexery.com/religious-traditions/e/religious-traditions/jainism/": {"t": "Jainism", "s": "Indian religion centered on nonviolence and spiritual liberation."}, "https://codexery.com/religious-traditions/e/religious-traditions/sikhism/": {"t": "Sikhism", "s": "Indian monotheistic religion founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th century."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/determinism/": {"t": "Determinism", "s": "The view that all events occur in only one possible way."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/free-will/": {"t": "Free will", "s": "The capacity to choose between different possible courses of action, central to moral responsibility and philosophical debate."}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/metaphysics/": {"t": "Metaphysics", "s": "Study of the most fundamental structure of reality."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/william-of-ockham/": {"t": "William of Ockham", "s": "English Franciscan friar, scholastic philosopher and theologian, known for Occam's razor."}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/informal-fallacy/": {"t": "Informal fallacy", "s": "Incorrect natural language arguments due to content and context."}, "https://codexery.com/set-theory-logic/e/set-theory-and-logic/propositional-logic/": {"t": "Propositional logic", "s": "Branch of classical logic dealing with propositions and logical connectives."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/contradiction/": {"t": "Contradiction", "s": "A proposition unconditionally false, central to logical proof."}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/mental-representation/": {"t": "Mental representation", "s": "Internal cognitive symbols representing external reality and abstractions."}, "https://codexery.com/miscellaneous/e/miscellaneous/creativity/": {"t": "Creativity", "s": "Ability to generate novel and valuable ideas or works."}, "https://codexery.com/psychology/e/psychology/introspection/": {"t": "Introspection", "s": "Examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/idealism/": {"t": "Idealism", "s": "The philosophical view that reality is fundamentally mental or idea-based."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/empiricism/": {"t": "Empiricism", "s": "Knowledge derives from sensory experience and empirical evidence."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-concepts/e/philosophical-concepts/analytic-philosophy/": {"t": "Analytic philosophy", "s": "A school of thought emphasizing analysis, logic, and the linguistic turn."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-traditions/e/philosophical-traditions/continental-philosophy/": {"t": "Continental philosophy", "s": "A diverse family of Western philosophies outside analytic tradition."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/john-locke/": {"t": "John Locke", "s": "Father of liberalism and influential Enlightenment thinker"}, "https://codexery.com/nonfiction-philosophy/e/nonfiction-and-philosophy/an-essay-concerning-human-understanding/": {"t": "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding", "s": "Empiricist foundation of human knowledge from experience."}, "https://codexery.com/psychologists-and-education-theorists/e/psychologists-and-education-theorists/james-mark-baldwin/": {"t": "James Mark Baldwin", "s": "American philosopher and psychologist; pioneer in developmental psychology and evolutionary theory.", "i": "https://codexery.com/psychologists-and-education-theorists/img/psychologists-and-education-theorists/james-mark-baldwin.webp", "c": "Agence de presse Meurisse · via Wikipedia: James Mark Baldwin · Public domain"}, "/e/philosophical-concepts-and-theories/explanation/": {"t": "Explanation", "s": "A set of statements clarifying causes, context, and consequences of facts."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/francis-bacon/": {"t": "Francis Bacon", "s": "English philosopher and statesman, father of empiricism, and founder of the scientific method."}, "https://codexery.com/classical-philosophy-rhetoric/e/classical-philosophy-and-rhetoric/novum-organum/": {"t": "Novum Organum", "s": "A philosophical work proposing a new system of inductive logic, published as a scathing attack on Aristotelian logic."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-traditions/e/philosophical-traditions/abductive-reasoning/": {"t": "Abductive reasoning", "s": "Logical inference seeking simplest, most likely conclusions from observations."}, "https://codexery.com/classical-mechanics-and-dynamics/e/classical-mechanics-and-dynamics/newton-s-law-of-universal-gravitation/": {"t": "Newton's law of universal gravitation", "s": "Gravity as a universal force between all masses."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-traditions/e/philosophical-traditions/causality/": {"t": "Causality", "s": "Causality is the influence by which a cause produces an effect."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-movements-and-schools/e/philosophical-movements-and-schools/rationalism/": {"t": "Rationalism", "s": "Epistemological view that reason is the chief source of knowledge."}, "https://codexery.com/classical-mechanics-and-dynamics/e/classical-mechanics-and-dynamics/newton-s-laws-of-motion/": {"t": "Newton's laws of motion", "s": "Three laws describing motion and force relationships."}, "https://codexery.com/miscellaneous-philosophy-and-religion/e/miscellaneous-philosophy-and-religion/german-idealism/": {"t": "German idealism", "s": "A movement seeking to reconcile reason, freedom, and reality."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophers-and-logicians/e/philosophers-and-logicians/thomas-kuhn/": {"t": "Thomas Kuhn", "s": "Historian and philosopher of science who popularized the term 'paradigm shift'.", "i": "https://codexery.com/philosophers-and-logicians/img/philosophers-and-logicians/thomas-kuhn.webp", "c": "Bob Bielk · via Wikipedia: Thomas Kuhn · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophy-theory/e/philosophy-and-theory/the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions/": {"t": "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions", "s": "In 1962, the philosopher Thomas S.", "i": "https://codexery.com/philosophy-theory/img/philosophy-and-theory/the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions.webp", "c": "Thomas Kuhn · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophers-and-logicians/e/philosophers-and-logicians/paul-feyerabend/": {"t": "Paul Feyerabend", "s": "Austrian philosopher who argued against universal scientific methods.", "i": "https://codexery.com/philosophers-and-logicians/img/philosophers-and-logicians/paul-feyerabend.webp", "c": "Unknown author · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/set-theory-logic/e/set-theory-and-logic/rule-of-inference/": {"t": "Rule of inference", "s": "Norms for deriving 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"https://codexery.com/philosophers-and-logicians/e/philosophers-and-logicians/paul-ric-ur/": {"t": "Paul Ricœur", "s": "French philosopher of hermeneutic phenomenology"}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-greek-theatre/e/ancient-greek-theatre/dithyramb/": {"t": "Dithyramb", "s": "Ancient Greek hymn and dance honoring Dionysus, origin of tragedy."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/edmund-burke/": {"t": "Edmund Burke", "s": "Anglo-Irish writer, philosopher, and politician; widely credited as the founder of conservatism."}, "https://codexery.com/biology-concepts/e/biology-concepts/metabolism/": {"t": "Metabolism", "s": "Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions sustaining life."}, "https://codexery.com/reincarnation/e/reincarnation/metempsychosis/": {"t": "Metempsychosis", "s": "The soul's journey through successive bodies after death."}, "https://codexery.com/molecular-biology/e/molecular-biology/biochemistry/": {"t": "Biochemistry", "s": "Study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms."}, "https://codexery.com/early-church-fathers-and-saints/e/early-church-fathers-and-saints/thomas-aquinas/": {"t": "Thomas Aquinas", "s": "Angelic Doctor and Universal Teacher", "i": "https://codexery.com/early-church-fathers-and-saints/img/early-church-fathers-and-saints/thomas-aquinas.webp", "c": "Carlo Crivelli · via Wikipedia: Thomas Aquinas · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophers-and-logicians/e/philosophers-and-logicians/patricia-churchland/": {"t": "Patricia Churchland", "s": "Canadian-American analytic philosopher and neurophilosophy pioneer", "i": "https://codexery.com/philosophers-and-logicians/img/philosophers-and-logicians/patricia-churchland.webp", "c": "Vera de Kok · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/ecology-and-behavior/e/ecology-and-behavior/circadian-rhythm/": {"t": "Circadian rhythm", "s": "Endogenous 24-hour cycles coordinating life with the environment.", "i": "https://codexery.com/ecology-and-behavior/img/ecology-and-behavior/circadian-rhythm.webp", "c": "Srruhh · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/scottish-inventions/e/scottish-inventions/glasgow-coma-scale/": {"t": "Glasgow Coma Scale", "s": "A standardised tool for assessing consciousness after head injury."}, "https://codexery.com/symptoms-and-signs-of-mental-disorders/e/symptoms-and-signs-of-mental-disorders/coma/": {"t": "Coma", "s": "A prolonged state of deep unconsciousness with no wakefulness or awareness."}, "https://codexery.com/neurotrauma/e/neurotrauma/minimally-conscious-state/": {"t": "Minimally conscious state", "s": "A disorder of consciousness with partial awareness and better prognosis than vegetative state."}}