Souls in Filipino cultures

Souls in a general concept

Each ethnic group in the Philippines has its own concept of the soul, with most traditions holding that a person possesses two or more souls while alive. The origin of these souls varies: among the Tagbanwa, certain deities provide them, while among the Bisaya, the soul comes from special regions. The number of souls differs by group—the Ifugao believe in two souls, whereas the Hanunoo Mangyan recognize five. A person's physical and mental health directly affects the well-being of their souls; if a soul is lost, illness follows, and if all living souls depart, the body typically dies.

However, the Ibanag describe a phenomenon called mekararuanan, where the body can continue living even after losing all its souls. Caring for oneself is thus essential for the longevity of both the souls and the body. Ghosts or ancestral spirits are understood as the souls of the dead, distinct from the living souls. After death, souls may recombine in the afterlife, as among the Bukidnon, or travel alone, as with the Suludnon.

The Bisaya believe the soul returns to its region of origin, while the Bagobo hold that the right soul goes to the afterlife and the left soul becomes a busaw creature.

Souls in ethnic-specific concepts

The Ifugao hold that a person has two souls: one in the eyes and another in the breath. Loss of the eye soul causes illness, while loss of the breath soul results in death; souls of murdered victims go to the lowest level of the skyworld. For the Ibaloi, the soul formally rests on the summit of Mount Pulag, a traditional sanctuary for departed loved ones. In Tagalog tradition, the soul is called kakambal while the person is alive and can leave the body involuntarily, especially during sleep, causing nightmares when it encounters terrifying events.

Upon death, the kakambal becomes the kaluluwa, which travels or is delivered by sacred buwayas (crocodiles with coffin-like backs) of the god Buwaya to the underworld—Maca for good souls, ruled by Sitan and Bathala, or Kasanaan for sinful souls, ruled by Sitan. The kaluluwa may enter the mortal world easily during pangangaluwa rituals. The Ibanag call the soul ikaruruwa, which gives direction and wholeness, though a person can survive without it; without a body, the soul can still experience material wants. The mekararuanan phenomenon involves the soul leaving the body without sense.