Nefertiti

Nefertiti lived from around 1370 to 1330 BC and was a queen of Egypt’s 18th Dynasty, serving as the great royal wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten. Together, they completely transformed the state’s religious policies, pushing Atenism—a belief system focused on the sun disc that was exclusive and possibly monotheistic, with a direct link to the royal family. Her reign alongside her husband took place during what is often considered the wealthiest period in ancient Egyptian history.

After Akhenaten died, some scholars think Nefertiti briefly ruled as a female pharaoh under the throne name Neferneferuaten, just before Tutankhamun took power. This idea is still debated. If she did rule as pharaoh, her time in charge saw the abandonment of Amarna and the capital’s move back to Memphis after her death.

Nefertiti became widely known in the 20th century when her ancient bust was discovered and put on display, now housed in Berlin’s Neues Museum. This bust, one of the most copied works of ancient Egyptian art, is credited to the sculptor Thutmose and was dug up from his buried workshop in the early 1900s.

Nefertiti held many titles, including Neferneferuaten (Beautiful is the beauty of Aten), Hereditary Princess, Great of Praises, Lady of Grace, Sweet of Love, Lady of The Two Lands, Main King’s Wife his beloved, Great King’s Wife his beloved, Lady of All Women, and Mistress of Upper & Lower Egypt. Modern Egyptological pronunciation gives her name as Nefertiti, but it originally came from the phrase *nfr.t jj.tj*, meaning “the beautiful one has come,” likely pronounced Naftita or Nafert-yiti in her time.

Almost nothing is known about Nefertiti’s life before she married Akhenaten. Scenes from noble tombs at Amarna mention a sister named Mutbenret. A woman named Tey was called “Nurse of the Great Royal Wife,” and her husband Ay held the title “God’s Father.” Some Egyptologists think this title was used for a man whose daughter married the pharaoh, leading to the idea that Ay was Nefertiti’s father. But neither Ay nor Tey is directly named as her parent in surviving records, though no evidence directly rules it out, and Ay’s influence during and after her life makes it seem likely. Another theory suggests Nefertiti was Ay’s daughter by a different woman, who died before Nefertiti became queen, after which Ay married Tey, making her Nefertiti’s stepmother. This is all speculation. Some have proposed Nefertiti was Akhenaten’s full sister, but her titles don’t include “King’s Daughter” or “King’s Sister,” which were used for royal relatives. Another idea links her to the Mitanni princess Tadukhipa, partly because her name (“The Beautiful Woman has Come”) might suggest foreign origins. However, Tadukhipa was already married to Akhenaten’s father, and there’s no reason she would have changed her name or any solid proof of Nefertiti’s foreign background.

The exact dates of her marriage to Akhenaten and her becoming great royal wife are unclear. They had at least six daughters: Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten (later Ankhesenamun, who married Tutankhamun), Neferneferuaten Tasherit, Neferneferure, and Setepenre. She was once thought to be Tutankhamun’s mother, but genetic studies of discovered mummies suggest she was not.

Nefertiti first appears in scenes at Thebes. In the damaged tomb of the royal butler Parennefer, the new king Amenhotep IV is shown with a royal woman, likely an early depiction of Nefertiti, both worshipping the Aten. In the tomb of the vizier Ramose, she stands behind Amenhotep IV at the Window of Appearance during a reward ceremony. During the early years in Thebes, Akhenaten (then still Amenhotep IV) built several temples at Karnak. One structure, the Mansion of the Benben, was dedicated to Nefertiti. She is shown with her daughter Meritaten, and sometimes princess Meketaten joins in. In scenes from the first five years of Akhenaten’s reign, Nefertiti appears nearly twice as often as her husband, showing her high visibility and political importance. She is shown behind the pharaoh in offering scenes, supporting him, but also in roles normally reserved for the king—smiting enemies, with captives decorating her throne. In his fourth year, Amenhotep IV decided to move the capital to Akhetaten (modern Amarna). In his fifth year, he changed his name to Akhenaten, and Nefertiti became known as Neferneferuaten-Nefertiti, marking a shift in their reign.