Child marriage

History

Before the Industrial Revolution, women in many societies were commonly married soon after reaching puberty, a practice that continued into the 19th century in rural areas. Men often married later when they were expected to establish their own household, delaying marriage until they could support a new home. In ancient and medieval societies, girls were frequently betrothed at or before puberty; in Ancient Israel, a father had the undisputed right to arrange his young daughter's marriage, and most girls married before age 15. During the Middle Ages, marriage around puberty was typical across the Jewish world.

Sixteenth-century Responsa literature indicates child marriage was so common it was virtually the norm. In Ancient Greece, girls married early and became teenage mothers, while boys also married in their teens. In Imperial China, child marriage was the norm.

Religious norms and laws

Most religions throughout history have set a minimum age for marriage. By the early 21st century, most countries had set the general minimum marriage age at 18, though many allowed exceptions with parental consent or court approval. Christian canon law forbade marriage before puberty; under the Catholic Church, a dissoluble betrothal was possible from age seven, and a valid marriage required puberty—nominally 14 for males and 12 for females. The 1917 Code of Canon Law raised the minimum for a valid marriage to 16 for males and 14 for females, which the 1983 Code maintained.

English ecclesiastical law also forbade marriage before puberty. In Hinduism, the Vedas contain verses indicating girls should marry long after puberty, though during the Vedic period some girls married before or during puberty. Some early Dharmaśāstra texts state girls should marry after puberty, while others extend the age to before puberty; these Smritis were often followed until revised. The Manusmriti holds that a father wrongs his daughter if he fails to marry her before puberty, and if she remains unmarried three years after puberty she may seek her own husband.

In modern India, the Hindu Marriage Act and Special Marriage Act set the minimum marriage age at 21 for males and 18 for females, applicable to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs.

Problems (gendered effects)

Child marriage has lasting consequences for girls in health, education, and social development that persist beyond adolescence. In developing countries, pregnancy and childbirth are among the most common causes of death for girls aged 15 to 19. Niger has the world's highest rate of child marriage, with about three out of four girls marrying before 18. Boys are sometimes married as children, almost always to a female minor; globally, the prevalence among boys is one-sixth that among girls.

Research on effects on underage boys is scant, likely because it is less common and boys do not face the health risks of early pregnancy. Effects on boys include being ill-prepared for providing for a family, early fatherhood, and limited education and career opportunities. As of 2014, 156 million living men were married as underage boys. UNICEF estimated 115 million boys and men were married as children, with 23 million married before age 15.

The Central African Republic has the highest male child marriage prevalence at 28%, followed by Nicaragua at 19% and Madagascar at 13%.

Causes

Factors promoting child marriage include poverty and economic survival strategies, gender inequality, sealing land or property deals, settling disputes, controlling sexuality and protecting family honor, tradition and culture, and insecurity during war, famine, or epidemics. Marriage can also consolidate powerful family ties. Dowry practices, especially in the Indian subcontinent, create economic pressure on families, who may betroth daughters as soon as they can afford the dowry.

European Jews historically married their girls early once the expected dowry was collected. Bride price—paid by the groom to the bride's parents—can be higher for younger brides, creating an economic incentive for families to marry girls early to the highest bidder. Child marriage may serve as a way out of desperate economic conditions or as income for parents. Bride kidnapping, or marriage by abduction, has been practiced worldwide and continues in Central Asia, the Caucasus, parts of Africa, among the Hmong in Southeast Asia, the Tzeltal in Mexico, and the Romani in Europe.

In Ethiopia, a 2003 study estimated the prevalence of bride kidnapping at 69% nationally, with reports of girls as young as 11 being taken for marriage. Ethiopia has enacted laws outlawing the practice and setting a minimum marriage age of 18, though their effectiveness remains unclear.