The Incoherence of the Philosophers
11th-century Asharite critique of Avicennian philosophy.
The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Arabic: تهافت الفلاسفة, romanized: Tahāfut al-Falāsifa) is an 11th-century work by the Muslim polymath al-Ghazali, a student of the Asharite school of Islamic theology. The book criticizes the Avicennian school of early Islamic philosophy, denouncing philosophers such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and al-Farabi (Alpharabius) for following Greek philosophy when it contradicts Islam. The text was dramatically successful and marked a milestone in the ascendance of the Asharite school within Islamic philosophy and theological discourse, favoring faith over philosophy in matters concerning metaphysics or knowledge of the divine.
Al-Ghazali wrote this work while serving as a professor of law at the prestigious Nizamiyya college in Baghdad, a position he assumed in July 1091 at the invitation of the vizier Nizam al-Mulk. The college was partly intended to train scholars to counter the religious propaganda of the Fatimid caliphs, and al-Ghazali’s appointment aligned with that goal. The book was the second in a series of four theological works he produced during this tenure. The first, *Maqāsid al-Falāsifa* (Aims of the Philosophers), was a summary of Avicenna’s philosophical doctrine, which al-Ghazali explicitly stated was an introduction to the *Tahāfut*, arguing that one must master philosophical ideas before refuting them. The third work, *Miyar al-Ilm*, was an exposition of Avicenna’s logic appended to the *Tahāfut*, and the fourth, *Al-Iqtisād fī al-iʿtiqad* (The Moderation in Belief), presented Asharite theology to replace the metaphysical doctrines he rejected. This series demonstrates that al-Ghazali did not dismiss all philosophy; he found no issue with physics, logic, astronomy, or mathematics, reserving his criticism solely for metaphysics, where he claimed the philosophers abandoned their own logical tools.
The work is organized into twenty chapters. In seventeen, al-Ghazali charges Avicenna and his followers with heresy on specific points, including their inability to prove the existence of God or the impossibility of two gods. In three additional chapters, he accuses them of outright disbelief in Islam. These three charges are: the theory of a pre-eternal world, the claim that God knows only universal characteristics (Platonic forms) rather than particulars, and the denial of bodily resurrection in the afterlife. The boo
- author
- al-Ghazali
- field
- Islamic theology and philosophy
- school
- Asharite
- known_for
- Critique of Avicennian philosophy and defense of occasionalism
- language
- Arabic
Lore & Background
The work is organized into 20 chapters. Al-Ghazali attempts to refute Avicenna's doctrines, charging that the philosophers have erred in seventeen points by committing heresy, and in three other chapters he accuses them of being utterly irreligious. Among the charges are their inability to prove the existence of God and the impossibility of two gods. The three points he charges as disbelief are: the theory of a pre-eternal world, that God knows only universal characteristics of particulars, and that bodily resurrection will not take place. The book also propounds the Asharite theory of occasionalism, arguing that when fire and cotton are placed in contact, the cotton is burned directly by God rather than by the fire.
Reader's Guide
The Incoherence of the Philosophers is significant for its decisive role in the ascendance of the Asharite school within Islamic thought, challenging the influence of Greek-inspired philosophy. Al-Ghazali did not reject all philosophical science; he found no problem with physics, logic, astronomy, or mathematics, but disputed metaphysics, claiming philosophers did not use the same logical tools there. The work provoked a major refutation by Ibn Rushd (Averroes) titled The Incoherence of the Incoherence, which defends the philosophers' doctrines. In the 15th century, Ottoman scholar Mustafa Ibn Yusuf al-Bursawi wrote a harsh critique of al-Ghazali's book at the request of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror. Ibn Tufail also responded critically in his philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqzan, while Ibn al-Nafis later wrote Theologus Autodidactus defending some of al-Ghazali's views. The work's legacy includes its modal theory of possible worlds, which parallels that of Duns Scotus, though influence is uncertain.
Did You Know?
- Al-Ghazali wrote this book as the second of a series of four theological works during his tenure at the Nizamiyya of Baghdad.
- The work charges philosophers with heresy in seventeen points and disbelief in three, including the denial of bodily resurrection.
- Al-Ghazali argued that when fire and cotton are placed in contact, the cotton is burned directly by God, not by the fire.
- Ibn Rushd wrote a refutation of this work titled The Incoherence of the Incoherence.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who wrote The Incoherence of the Philosophers?
Al-Ghazali, an 11th-century Muslim polymath trained in the Asharite theological tradition, authored the work in Arabic under the title Tahāfut al-Falāsifa.
What is The Incoherence of the Philosophers about?
The book systematically attacks the Avicennian school of early Islamic philosophy, arguing that its central claims run counter to core Islamic tenets. Al-Ghazali uses it to defend occasionalism and to privilege faith over speculative Greek-influenced reasoning.
Which thinkers does The Incoherence of the Philosophers specifically criticize?
Al-Ghazali directs his sharpest critiques at Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and al-Farabi (Alpharabius), accusing them of importing Greek philosophical frameworks that he judged incompatible with Islamic doctrine.
Why is The Incoherence of the Philosophers considered a landmark text?
Its dramatic success is widely credited with tipping the balance of authority in Islamic intellectual life toward the Asharite school. It became a defining milestone in the broader shift from Greek-influenced rationalism to faith-centered theological discourse.
What theological school does The Incoherence of the Philosophers represent?
The work is firmly anchored in the Asharite school of Islamic theology, the tradition in which al-Ghazali was trained. It champions a faith-first epistemology and defends occasionalism against the rationalist tendencies of the Avicennian philosophers.
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