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under Venetian rule, united with Greece in 1864."}, "https://codexery.com/states-of-the-german-empire/e/states-of-the-german-empire/saxe-coburg-and-gotha/": {"t": "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha", "s": "Ernestine duchy in Thuringia, ruled by a branch of the House of Wettin."}, "https://codexery.com/european-statesmen-and-prime-ministers/e/european-statesmen-and-prime-ministers/victor-emmanuel-ii/": {"t": "Victor Emmanuel II", "s": "First king of a united Italy since the 6th century."}, "https://codexery.com/former-empires/e/former-empires/austrian-empire/": {"t": "Austrian Empire", "s": "A multinational great power formed from the Habsburg monarchy in 1804."}, "https://codexery.com/social-reformers-and-humanitarians/e/social-reformers-and-humanitarians/henri-dunant/": {"t": "Henri Dunant", "s": "Swiss humanitarian who co-founded the Red Cross."}, "https://codexery.com/international-organizations-and-agreemen/e/international-organizations-and-agreements/geneva-conventions/": {"t": "Geneva 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"https://codexery.com/european-modernists/e/european-modernists/joseph-roth/": {"t": "Joseph Roth", "s": "Austro-Hungarian journalist and novelist of the Habsburg decline."}, "https://codexery.com/cultural-depictions-of-franz-joseph-i/e/cultural-depictions-of-franz-joseph-i-of-austria/radetzky-march-novel/": {"t": "Radetzky March (novel)", "s": "A family saga mirroring the Habsburg Empire's decline."}, "https://codexery.com/international-organizations-and-agreemen/e/international-organizations-and-agreements/international-red-cross-and-red-crescent-movement/": {"t": "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement", "s": "Humanitarian movement founded to alleviate suffering and protect human life."}, "https://codexery.com/languages-and-dialects/e/languages-and-dialects/dutch-language/": {"t": "Dutch language", "s": "A West Germanic language spoken by millions across Europe, the Americas, and beyond."}, "https://codexery.com/mothers-of-emperors/e/mothers-of-emperors/letizia-bonaparte/": {"t": "Letizia Bonaparte", "s": "Corsican noblewoman and mother of Emperor Napoleon I."}, "https://codexery.com/french-regions/e/french-regions/corsica/": {"t": "Corsica", "s": "Mediterranean island, French region with growing nationalist movement."}, "https://codexery.com/mothers-of-emperors/e/mothers-of-emperors/hortense-de-beauharnais/": {"t": "Hortense de Beauharnais", "s": "Queen of Holland and mother of Emperor Napoleon III."}, "https://codexery.com/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasti/e/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasties/first-french-empire/": {"t": "First French Empire", "s": "Empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte, dominating early 19th-century Europe.", "i": "https://codexery.com/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasti/img/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasties/first-french-empire.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: First French Empire · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/coastal/amsterdam/": {"t": "Amsterdam", "s": "Venice of the North"}, "https://codexery.com/state-ritual-and-ceremonies/e/state-ritual-and-ceremonies/diplomatic-corps/": {"t": "Diplomatic corps", "s": "Collective body of foreign diplomats accredited to a host country."}, "https://codexery.com/economic-concepts/e/economic-concepts/economic-growth/": {"t": "Economic growth", "s": "Economic growth is the increase in the quantity and quality of goods and services a society produces, measured by real GDP or GDP per capita.", "i": "https://codexery.com/economic-concepts/img/economic-concepts/economic-growth.webp", "c": "DavidMCEddy · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/francis-ii-holy-roman-emperor/": {"t": "Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor", "s": "Last Holy Roman Emperor, first Emperor of Austria."}, "https://codexery.com/leaders-and-monarchs/e/leaders-and-monarchs/louis-philippe-i/": {"t": "Louis Philippe I", "s": "Last French king; abdicated in 1848 Revolution."}, "https://codexery.com/french-regions/e/french-regions/le-de-france/": {"t": "Île-de-France", "s": "Most populous French region, containing Paris and a third of national GDP."}, "https://codexery.com/architectural-styles-and-landmarks/e/architectural-styles-and-landmarks/neoclassical-architecture/": {"t": "Neoclassical architecture", "s": "A return to pure classical forms adapted to modern purposes."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/eug-nie-de-montijo/": {"t": "Eugénie de Montijo", "s": "Empress of the French and de facto head of state in 1870."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/louis-napol-on-prince-imperial/": {"t": "Louis-Napoléon, Prince Imperial", "s": "Only child of Napoleon III, killed in the Anglo-Zulu War."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/st-mary-s-church-chislehurst/": {"t": "St Mary's Church, Chislehurst", "s": "Roman Catholic church with a chapel added in 1874 for the tomb of Napoleon III."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/st-michael-s-abbey-farnborough/": {"t": "St Michael's Abbey, Farnborough", "s": "Benedictine abbey housing the imperial crypt of Napoleon III's family."}, "https://codexery.com/cathedrals/e/great-cathedrals/notre-dame-de-paris/": {"t": "Notre-Dame de Paris", "s": "Medieval Gothic cathedral on the Île de la Cité in Paris.", "i": "https://codexery.com/cathedrals/img/great-cathedrals/notre-dame-de-paris.webp", "c": "Jebulon · CC0"}, "https://codexery.com/dynasties-and-kingdoms/e/dynasties-and-kingdoms/merovingian-dynasty/": {"t": "Merovingian dynasty", "s": "The Merovingian family ruled the Franks from the mid-5th century until 751, when Pepin the Short took over.", "i": "https://codexery.com/dynasties-and-kingdoms/img/dynasties-and-kingdoms/merovingian-dynasty.webp", "c": "Rudric · via Wikipedia: Merovingian dynasty · CC BY-SA 3.0"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/charlemagne/": {"t": "Charlemagne", "s": "Father of Europe"}, "/e/napoleon-iii/exposition-universelle-1867/": {"t": "Exposition Universelle (1867)", "s": "A world's fair showcasing industry, art, and innovation in Paris."}, "https://codexery.com/matter-of-france/e/matter-of-france/hauteclere/": {"t": "Hauteclere", "s": "The sword of Oliver, used to avenge his own death."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/leaders/roland/": {"t": "Roland", "s": "Frankish commander whose death inspired epic tales of chivalry.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/img/leaders/roland.webp", "c": "Archimatth · via Wikipedia: Roland · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/matter-of-france/e/matter-of-france/durendal/": {"t": "Durendal", "s": "Legendary sword of Roland, famed for its hardness and indestructibility."}, "https://codexery.com/matter-of-france/e/matter-of-france/battle-of-roncevaux-pass/": {"t": "Battle of Roncevaux Pass", "s": "Basque ambush that became a chivalric legend."}, "https://codexery.com/leaders-and-monarchs/e/leaders-and-monarchs/louis-xv/": {"t": "Louis XV", "s": "King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774; second longest reign in French history."}, "https://codexery.com/olympic-equestrian-venues/e/olympic-equestrian-venues/palace-of-versailles/": {"t": "Palace of Versailles", "s": "Former royal residence and UNESCO World Heritage site near Paris."}, "https://codexery.com/european-medieval-monarchs/e/european-medieval-monarchs/charles-v-of-france/": {"t": "Charles V of France", "s": "King of France who reconquered territory from the English."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/louis-xiv/": {"t": "Louis XIV", "s": "The Sun King who defined absolute monarchy and led France to European dominance."}, "https://codexery.com/revolutions-uprisings/e/revolutions-and-uprisings/french-revolution/": {"t": "French Revolution", "s": "The 1789–1799 upheaval that toppled the French monarchy and shaped liberal democracy.", "i": "https://codexery.com/revolutions-uprisings/img/revolutions-and-uprisings/french-revolution.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: French Revolution · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/transportation-engineering/e/transportation-engineering/carriage/": {"t": "Carriage", "s": "Horse-drawn vehicle for passengers, once a principal road transport."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/louis-bonaparte/": {"t": "Louis Bonaparte", "s": "Younger brother of Napoleon I and King of Holland."}, "https://codexery.com/christian-theology/e/christian-theology/basilica/": {"t": "Basilica", "s": "Ancient Roman public building, later adapted for Christian worship."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/e/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/ravenna/": {"t": "Ravenna", "s": "Capital of the Western Roman Empire and mosaics."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/louis-ix-of-france/": {"t": "Louis IX of France", "s": "Saint Louis, the monk king who led crusades and reformed justice."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/karl-marx/": {"t": "Karl Marx", "s": "German philosopher and revolutionary socialist who developed Marxism."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/1851-french-coup-d-tat/": {"t": "1851 French coup d'état", "s": "Self-coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte that ended the Second Republic."}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/landmark-cities/new-york-city/": {"t": "New York City", "s": "The most populous city in the United States, a global center of finance, culture, and diplomacy."}, "https://codexery.com/german-states/e/german-states/hamburg/": {"t": "Hamburg", "s": "Second-largest German city and major Hanseatic port."}, "https://codexery.com/historiography-methods/e/historiography-and-methods/historiography/": {"t": "Historiography", "s": "The study of how history is written and interpreted.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historiography-methods/img/historiography-and-methods/historiography.webp", "c": "Riad Salih and Nursila · CC BY 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/european-religious-and-political-conflic/e/european-religious-and-political-conflicts/french-revolution-of-1848/": {"t": "French Revolution of 1848", "s": "Civil unrest in February 1848 ending the July Monarchy."}, "https://codexery.com/miscellaneous-philosophy-and-religion/e/miscellaneous-philosophy-and-religion/hierarchy-of-the-catholic-church/": {"t": "Hierarchy of the Catholic Church", "s": "The holy ordering of bishops, priests, and deacons in the Catholic Church."}, "https://codexery.com/sociologists-and-political-theorists/e/sociologists-and-political-theorists/alexis-de-tocqueville/": {"t": "Alexis de Tocqueville", "s": "French diplomat and thinker who analyzed democracy and revolution."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/georg-wilhelm-friedrich-hegel/": {"t": "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel", "s": "German philosopher and major figure in German idealism"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/friedrich-engels/": {"t": "Friedrich Engels", "s": "Revolutionary socialist and co-founder of Marxism"}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/culture/london/": {"t": "London", "s": "A global city on the Thames, London blends nearly 2,000 years of history with a vibrant, multicultural present."}, "https://codexery.com/sculptors-architects/e/sculptors-and-architects/fran-ois-rude/": {"t": "François Rude", "s": "French sculptor of patriotic themes and the Arc de Triomphe."}, "https://codexery.com/visual-artists/e/visual-artists/jean-auguste-dominique-ingres/": {"t": "Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres", "s": "French Neoclassical painter whose portraits are recognized as his greatest legacy.", "i": "https://codexery.com/visual-artists/img/visual-artists/jean-auguste-dominique-ingres.webp", "c": "Petit, Pierre (Pierre Lanith Petit, dit) (Aups, 15–08–1831 - Paris, 16–02–1909), photographe · via Wikipedia: Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres · CC0"}, "https://codexery.com/painters-visual-artists/e/painters-and-visual-artists/william-holman-hunt/": {"t": "William Holman Hunt", "s": "English painter and co-founder of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.", "i": "https://codexery.com/painters-visual-artists/img/painters-and-visual-artists/william-holman-hunt.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: William Holman Hunt · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/portraitists-and-storytellers/e/portraitists-and-storytellers/john-everett-millais/": {"t": "John Everett Millais", "s": "English painter and illustrator, co-founder of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood"}, "https://codexery.com/visual-artists/e/visual-artists/gustave-courbet/": {"t": "Gustave Courbet", "s": "French painter who led the Realism movement.", "i": "https://codexery.com/visual-artists/img/visual-artists/gustave-courbet.webp", "c": "Gustave Courbet · CC0"}, "https://codexery.com/cities-of-the-world/e/cities-of-the-world/bordeaux/": {"t": "Bordeaux", "s": "Port city and world capital of wine in southwestern France.", "i": "https://codexery.com/cities-of-the-world/img/cities-of-the-world/bordeaux.webp", "c": "David.J Janssen · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/weapon-designers/e/weapon-designers/samuel-colt/": {"t": "Samuel Colt", "s": "American inventor who made the revolver commercially viable.", "i": "https://codexery.com/weapon-designers/img/weapon-designers/samuel-colt.webp", "c": "Glasshouse using elements by Sodacan · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "/e/napoleon-iii/haussmann-s-renovation-of-paris/": {"t": "Haussmann's renovation of Paris", "s": "Napoleon III's vast public works transformed medieval Paris."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-empires-rulers/e/ancient-empires-rulers/alexander-ii-of-russia/": {"t": "Alexander II of Russia", "s": "Emperor of Russia who emancipated the serfs and pursued liberal reforms."}, "https://codexery.com/european-prime-ministers-and-statesmen/e/european-prime-ministers-and-statesmen/otto-von-bismarck/": {"t": "Otto von Bismarck", "s": "Prussian statesman who unified Germany and became its first chancellor."}, "https://codexery.com/writers-poets/e/writers-and-poets/alexandre-dumas/": {"t": "Alexandre Dumas", "s": "French writer of historical adventure serials.", "i": "https://codexery.com/writers-poets/img/writers-and-poets/alexandre-dumas.webp", "c": "Nadar · via Wikipedia: Alexandre Dumas · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/sociologists-and-political-theorists/e/sociologists-and-political-theorists/ernest-renan/": {"t": "Ernest Renan", "s": "French Orientalist and Semitic scholar who wrote Life of Jesus and advanced the Khazar theory."}, "https://codexery.com/photographers/e/photographers/nadar/": {"t": "Nadar", "s": "French photographer, caricaturist, and balloonist who pioneered aerial photography."}, "https://codexery.com/french-inventions/e/french-inventions/breechloader/": {"t": "Breechloader", "s": "A firearm loaded from the rear of the barrel."}, "https://codexery.com/firearm-manufacturers/e/firearm-manufacturers/krupp/": {"t": "Krupp", "s": "Europe's largest company and Germany's chief arms maker in two world wars."}, "https://codexery.com/inventors/e/great-inventors/samuel-morse/": {"t": "Samuel Morse", "s": "American inventor and painter, co-developer of Morse code and the single-wire telegraph.", "i": "https://codexery.com/inventors/img/great-inventors/samuel-morse.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Samuel Morse · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/phantom-places-discovery/e/phantom-places-and-discovery/exploration/": {"t": "Exploration", "s": "Exploration is the process of discovering the unknown."}, "https://codexery.com/traditional-knowledge/e/traditional-knowledge/ethnobotany/": {"t": "Ethnobotany", "s": "Interdisciplinary study of human-plant relationships and traditional knowledge."}, "https://codexery.com/biopiracy/e/biopiracy/tabernanthe-iboga/": {"t": "Tabernanthe iboga", "s": "Central African shrub with psychoactive root bark used in rituals."}, "https://codexery.com/addictive-substances-medications/e/addictive-substances-and-medications/heroin/": {"t": "Heroin", "s": "Heroin, known chemically as diacetylmorphine or diamorphine, is an opioid derived from the dried latex of the opium poppy."}, "https://codexery.com/archery/e/archery/arrow-poison/": {"t": "Arrow poison", "s": "Arrow poisons have been used for millennia in hunting and warfare worldwide."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/artists/vincent-van-gogh/": {"t": "Vincent van Gogh", "s": "The tortured genius who changed art forever.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/img/artists/vincent-van-gogh.webp", "c": "Vincent van Gogh · via Wikipedia: Vincent van Gogh · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/writers-poets/e/writers-and-poets/jules-verne/": {"t": "Jules Verne", "s": "French novelist, poet, and playwright; creator of the Voyages extraordinaires."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/camden-place/": {"t": "Camden Place", "s": "Exiled home of Napoleon III in Chislehurst."}, "https://codexery.com/christian-church-bodies/e/christian-church-bodies/benedictines/": {"t": "Benedictines", "s": "Oldest Latin Church order, following the Rule of Saint Benedict."}, "https://codexery.com/modern-conflicts/e/modern-conflicts/world-war-i/": {"t": "World War I", "s": "Global conflict between Allies and Central Powers, 1914–1918."}, "https://codexery.com/forensic-pathology/e/forensic-pathology/putrefaction/": {"t": "Putrefaction", "s": "The bacterial breakdown of tissues after death, producing gases and odor."}, "https://codexery.com/medical-specialties/e/medical-specialties/infectious-disease/": {"t": "Infectious disease", "s": "Illness caused by pathogens invading host tissues.", "i": "https://codexery.com/medical-specialties/img/medical-specialties/infectious-disease.webp", "c": "Rosser1954 · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/infectious-diseases/e/infectious-diseases/cholera/": {"t": "Cholera", "s": "An infection of the small intestine by Vibrio cholerae, causing watery diarrhea and dehydration."}, "https://codexery.com/literary-giants/e/literary-giants/voltaire/": {"t": "Voltaire", "s": "French Enlightenment writer and advocate of civil liberties"}, "https://codexery.com/writers-poets/e/writers-and-poets/honor-de-balzac/": {"t": "Honoré de Balzac", "s": "French novelist and playwright, founder of realism in European literature"}, "https://codexery.com/disasters/e/historic-disasters/the-great-fire-of-london/": {"t": "The Great Fire of London", "s": "The Great Fire of London consumed the medieval heart of the capital, burning from Sunday 2 September to Wednesday 5 September 1666."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/artists/christopher-wren/": {"t": "Christopher Wren", "s": "English architect, astronomer, mathematician and physicist; master of English Baroque; rebuilt 52 churches after the Great Fire of London.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/img/artists/christopher-wren.webp", "c": "Godfrey Kneller · via Wikipedia: Christopher Wren · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/revolutions-uprisings/e/revolutions-and-uprisings/english-civil-war/": {"t": "English Civil War", "s": "King versus Parliament: a revolution that beheaded a monarchy.", "i": "https://codexery.com/revolutions-uprisings/img/revolutions-and-uprisings/english-civil-war.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: English Civil War · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/french-regions/e/french-regions/alsace/": {"t": "Alsace", "s": "A border region blending German and French cultures, historically contested."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/exposition-universelle-1855/": {"t": "Exposition Universelle (1855)", "s": "First of ten major Paris expositions between 1855 and 1937."}, "https://codexery.com/observatories-of-europe/e/observatories-of-europe/paris-observatory/": {"t": "Paris Observatory", "s": "World's oldest active observatory, cornerstone of French astronomy."}, "https://codexery.com/painting-visual-arts/e/painting-and-visual-arts/impressionism/": {"t": "Impressionism", "s": "A 19th-century French art movement emphasizing light and ordinary subjects."}, "https://codexery.com/states-of-the-german-empire/e/states-of-the-german-empire/kingdom-of-prussia/": {"t": "Kingdom of Prussia", "s": "German state that unified Germany and dominated the German Empire."}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/capitals/berlin/": {"t": "Berlin", "s": "The heart of Europe, a city of culture and history."}, "https://codexery.com/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasti/e/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasties/german-confederation/": {"t": "German Confederation", "s": "An association of 39 German states from 1815 to 1866, created by the Congress of Vienna.", "i": "https://codexery.com/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasti/img/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasties/german-confederation.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: German Confederation · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/states-of-the-german-empire/e/states-of-the-german-empire/kingdom-of-saxony/": {"t": "Kingdom of Saxony", "s": "A German kingdom from 1806 to 1918, centered on Dresden."}, "https://codexery.com/christian-theology/e/christian-theology/christian-eschatology/": {"t": "Christian eschatology", "s": "Study of the 'last things' in Christian theology."}, "https://codexery.com/theological-and-philosophical-debates/e/theological-and-philosophical-debates/eschatology/": {"t": "Eschatology", "s": "Study of end times across religions and philosophies."}, "https://codexery.com/christian-mythology/e/christian-mythology/antichrist/": {"t": "Antichrist", "s": "Prophesied opponent of Christ, appearing before the Second Coming."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-empires/e/ancient-empires/roman-empire/": {"t": "Roman Empire", "s": "Medieval and early modern empire claiming direct Roman succession, dissolved in 1806."}, "https://codexery.com/christian-sacred-texts/e/christian-sacred-texts/book-of-daniel/": {"t": "Book of Daniel", "s": "Biblical apocalypse set in the 6th century BC, written in the 2nd century BC."}, "https://codexery.com/christian-sacred-texts/e/christian-sacred-texts/book-of-revelation/": {"t": "Book of Revelation", "s": "The last book of the New Testament, an apocalyptic prophecy."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/battle-of-sedan/": {"t": "Battle of Sedan", "s": "Decisive Franco-Prussian War battle ending with Napoleon III's capture."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/england/": {"t": "England", "s": "Land of the Angles, birthplace of football and the Industrial Revolution."}, "https://codexery.com/british-colonisation-in-africa/e/british-colonisation-in-africa/anglo-zulu-war/": {"t": "Anglo-Zulu War", "s": "British victory ended Zulu dominance in southern Africa."}, "https://codexery.com/ethnic-indigenous-groups/e/ethnic-and-indigenous-groups/zulu-people/": {"t": "Zulu people", "s": "The largest ethnic group in South Africa, known for their rich traditions, military history, and vibrant beadwork."}, "https://codexery.com/universities/e/universities/king-s-college-london/": {"t": "King's College London", "s": "Founded 1829; founding college of University of London."}, "https://codexery.com/olympic-equestrian-venues/e/olympic-equestrian-venues/aldershot/": {"t": "Aldershot", "s": "Hampshire town known as the Home of the British Army."}, "https://codexery.com/regions-cultural-spheres/e/regions-and-cultural-spheres/europe/": {"t": "Europe", "s": "Second-smallest continent, birthplace of Western civilisation and European Union."}, "https://codexery.com/branches-of-christianity/e/branches-of-christianity/catholic-church/": {"t": "Catholic Church", "s": "The largest Christian church, with 1.28 to 1.41 billion baptized members.", "i": "https://codexery.com/branches-of-christianity/img/branches-of-christianity/catholic-church.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Christianity by country · see source"}, "/e/napoleon-iii/prince-imperial-memorial/": {"t": "Prince Imperial Memorial", "s": "Memorial cross marking the Prince Imperial's death site."}, "https://codexery.com/notable-asteroids/e/notable-asteroids/minor-planet-moon/": {"t": "Minor-planet moon", "s": "A natural satellite orbiting a minor planet, revealing mass and density."}, "https://codexery.com/wars-conflicts/e/wars-and-conflicts/second-boer-war/": {"t": "Second Boer War", "s": "A colonial war over gold and British dominance in Southern Africa.", "i": "https://codexery.com/wars-conflicts/img/wars-and-conflicts/second-boer-war.webp", "c": "Unknown author · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/mythological-legendary-figures/e/mythological-and-legendary-figures/marianne/": {"t": "Marianne", "s": "National personification of the French Republic since the Revolution."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/franklin-d-roosevelt/": {"t": "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "s": "32nd US president who led the nation through the Great Depression and World War II."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/josip-broz-tito/": {"t": "Josip Broz Tito", "s": "Yugoslav revolutionary and statesman, leader of the Partisans and longtime president."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/dwight-d-eisenhower/": {"t": "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "s": "34th president of the United States and Supreme Commander of Allied forces in Europe during World War II."}, "https://codexery.com/composers/e/great-composers/franz-liszt/": {"t": "Franz Liszt", "s": "Hungarian composer and pianist of the Romantic period.", "i": "https://codexery.com/composers/img/great-composers/franz-liszt.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Franz Liszt · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/languages-and-writing-systems/e/languages-and-writing-systems/russian-language/": {"t": "Russian language", "s": "An East Slavic language of the Indo-European family, native to Russia and widely spoken across Eurasia."}, "https://codexery.com/cities-on-rivers/e/cities-on-rivers/saint-petersburg/": {"t": "Saint Petersburg", "s": "Russia's cultural capital and historic window to Europe."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/spain/": {"t": "Spain", "s": "A country spanning the Iberian Peninsula, with a history from Roman Hispania to a modern constitutional monarchy."}, "https://codexery.com/european-religious-and-political-conflic/e/european-religious-and-political-conflicts/first-carlist-war/": {"t": "First Carlist War", "s": "A civil war in Spain from 1833 to 1840 over succession and monarchy, pitting Carlists against Liberals."}, "https://codexery.com/literary-giants/e/literary-giants/stendhal/": {"t": "Stendhal", "s": "French writer and pioneer of psychological realism."}, "https://codexery.com/straits-and-channels/e/straits-and-channels/suez-canal/": {"t": "Suez Canal", "s": "The Suez Canal: a vital sea-level waterway linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas, dividing Africa and Asia."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/second-french-intervention-in-mexico/": {"t": "Second French intervention in Mexico", "s": "French invasion of Mexico establishing a short-lived monarchy."}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/ancient-cities/istanbul/": {"t": "Istanbul", "s": "A city on two continents, bridging Europe and Asia."}, "https://codexery.com/magazines-newspapers/e/magazines-and-newspapers/punch-magazine/": {"t": "Punch (magazine)", "s": "The London Charivari", "i": "https://codexery.com/magazines-newspapers/img/magazines-and-newspapers/punch-magazine.webp", "c": "Frank Reynolds · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/fashion-designers/e/fashion-designers/charles-frederick-worth/": {"t": "Charles Frederick Worth", "s": "English designer who founded the House of Worth and revolutionized haute couture."}, "https://codexery.com/monarchs-and-nobility/e/monarchs-and-nobility/marie-antoinette/": {"t": "Marie Antoinette", "s": "Queen of France, youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, executed during the French Revolution.", "i": "https://codexery.com/monarchs-and-nobility/img/monarchs-and-nobility/marie-antoinette.webp", "c": "Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun · via Wikipedia: Marie Antoinette · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/capitals/beijing/": {"t": "Beijing", "s": "The world's most populous national capital, blending millennia of history with cutting-edge innovation."}, "https://codexery.com/wars-conflicts/e/wars-and-conflicts/second-opium-war/": {"t": "Second Opium War", "s": "Conflict over opium trade and diplomatic rights."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/h-tel-du-palais/": {"t": "Hôtel du Palais", "s": "A former imperial villa turned luxury hotel on the Basque coast."}, "https://codexery.com/english-counties/e/english-counties/kent/": {"t": "Kent", "s": "The Garden of England"}, "https://codexery.com/true-cross/e/true-cross/treasury-of-saint-denis/": {"t": "Treasury of Saint-Denis", "s": "Main repository of French royal regalia until the Revolution."}, "https://codexery.com/sculptors-architects/e/sculptors-and-architects/david-d-angers/": {"t": "David d'Angers", "s": "French sculptor and medalist of monumental and portrait works."}, "https://codexery.com/russian-federal-subjects/e/russian-federal-subjects/karelia/": {"t": "Karelia", "s": "A historical region divided between Russia and Finland, known for its lakes, cultural heritage, and contested past."}, "https://codexery.com/leaders-and-monarchs/e/leaders-and-monarchs/nicholas-i-of-russia/": {"t": "Nicholas I of Russia", "s": "Emperor of Russia known for autocratic rule, territorial expansion, and suppression of dissent."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-russia/e/world-heritage-sites-in-russia/kronstadt/": {"t": "Kronstadt", "s": "Russian port city and Baltic Fleet fortress guarding Saint Petersburg."}, "https://codexery.com/olympic-sailing-venues/e/olympic-sailing-venues/le-havre/": {"t": "Le Havre", "s": "Normandy port city rebuilt after WWII, now a UNESCO site.", "i": "https://codexery.com/olympic-sailing-venues/img/olympic-sailing-venues/le-havre.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Le Havre · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/cultural/vienna/": {"t": "Vienna", "s": "Capital on the Danube, heart of Austria"}, "https://codexery.com/world-war-ii-topics/e/world-war-ii-topics/vichy-france/": {"t": "Vichy France", "s": "French rump state headed by Philippe Pétain during World War II."}, "https://codexery.com/european-prime-ministers-and-statesmen/e/european-prime-ministers-and-statesmen/pierre-laval/": {"t": "Pierre Laval", "s": "French politician and prime minister executed for Nazi collaboration"}, "https://codexery.com/european-prime-ministers-and-statesmen/e/european-prime-ministers-and-statesmen/philippe-p-tain/": {"t": "Philippe Pétain", "s": "From hero of Verdun to collaborationist ruler of Vichy France."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/orsini-bomb/": {"t": "Orsini bomb", "s": "A contact-fused hand grenade used against Napoleon III."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-eras/e/historical-eras/late-antiquity/": {"t": "Late antiquity", "s": "Period of transformation from classical antiquity to medieval worlds."}, "https://codexery.com/russian-and-soviet-writers/e/russian-and-soviet-writers/alexander-herzen/": {"t": "Alexander Herzen", "s": "Russian writer and precursor of socialism and agrarian populism.", "i": "https://codexery.com/russian-and-soviet-writers/img/russian-and-soviet-writers/alexander-herzen.webp", "c": "Ге Николай Николаевич (1831 -1894) · via Wikipedia: Alexander Herzen · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/legal-concepts-doctrines/e/legal-concepts-and-doctrines/extradition/": {"t": "Extradition", "s": "Formal legal process for surrendering fugitives between jurisdictions."}, "https://codexery.com/music/e/music/william-tell-opera/": {"t": "William Tell (opera)", "s": "Rossini's final opera, based on the William Tell legend."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/leaders/george-armstrong-custer/": {"t": "George Armstrong Custer", "s": "The controversial cavalry commander of the Civil War and Indian Wars, known for his dramatic end at the Little Bighorn.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/img/leaders/george-armstrong-custer.webp", "c": "Photographer is Mathew Brady (died 1896) and his field staff · via Wikipedia: George Armstrong Custer · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/benjamin-disraeli/": {"t": "Benjamin Disraeli", "s": "British statesman, Conservative politician and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom."}, "https://codexery.com/european-regions/e/european-regions/piedmont/": {"t": "Piedmont", "s": "Northwest Italian region, historic heart of Italian unification."}, "https://codexery.com/political-and-social-theorists/e/political-and-social-theorists/harriet-martineau/": {"t": "Harriet Martineau", "s": "English social theorist and abolitionist who supported herself by writing."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/john-stuart-mill/": {"t": "John Stuart Mill", "s": "English philosopher of liberalism."}, "https://codexery.com/nonfiction-and-reference/e/part-1/on-liberty/": {"t": "On Liberty", "s": "On Liberty is an essay co-authored by the English philosophers Harriet Taylor Mill and John Stuart Mill, published in 1859 under John Stuart Mill’s name alone."}, "https://codexery.com/crime-justice/e/crime-and-justice/terrorism/": {"t": "Terrorism", "s": "Violence against non-combatants to achieve political or ideological aims."}, "/e/napoleon-iii/orsini-affair/": {"t": "Orsini affair", "s": "Diplomatic and political fallout from Orsini's 1858 attempt on Napoleon III."}, "https://codexery.com/american-civil-war/e/american-civil-war/confederate-states-of-america/": {"t": "Confederate States of America", "s": "Unrecognized republic of 11 Southern states during the American Civil War."}, "https://codexery.com/rebellions-against-the-united-states/e/rebellions-against-the-united-states/american-civil-war/": {"t": "American Civil War", "s": "Civil war between the Union and Confederacy over slavery and secession."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/soviet-union/": {"t": "Soviet Union", "s": "The world's flagship communist state and a superpower spanning Eurasia."}, "https://codexery.com/regions-of-england/e/regions-of-england/devon/": {"t": "Devon", "s": "Ceremonial county in South West England with two coastlines."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/gioachino-rossini/": {"t": "Gioachino Rossini", "s": "Italian composer of 39 operas who retired from large-scale work in his thirties."}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/cultural/barcelona/": {"t": "Barcelona", "s": "Capital of Catalonia, Mediterranean metropolis, and global cultural hub."}, "https://codexery.com/architectural-landmarks/e/architectural-landmarks/van-gogh-museum/": {"t": "Van Gogh Museum", "s": "Dutch museum housing the world's largest Van Gogh collection.", "i": "https://codexery.com/architectural-landmarks/img/architectural-landmarks/van-gogh-museum.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Vincent van Gogh · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/royalty-and-heads-of-state/e/royalty-and-heads-of-state/edward-vii/": {"t": "Edward VII", "s": "King of the United Kingdom and Emperor of India from 1901 to 1910.", "i": "https://codexery.com/royalty-and-heads-of-state/img/royalty-and-heads-of-state/edward-vii.webp", "c": "Author (artist) unknown (work was published in 1888) · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/e/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/bay-of-biscay/": {"t": "Bay of Biscay", "s": "A gulf of the northeast Atlantic Ocean known for its fierce storms, deep abyssal plain, and rich maritime history."}, "https://codexery.com/mountain-ranges-and-massifs/e/mountain-ranges-and-massifs/pyrenees/": {"t": "Pyrenees", "s": "Mountain range forming the France–Spain border.", "i": "https://codexery.com/mountain-ranges-and-massifs/img/mountain-ranges-and-massifs/pyrenees.webp", "c": "The original uploader was Nhamblen at English Wikipedia. · via Wikipedia: Pyrenees · CC BY-SA 3.0"}, "https://codexery.com/royalty-and-heads-of-state/e/royalty-and-heads-of-state/empress-elisabeth-of-austria/": {"t": "Empress Elisabeth of Austria", "s": "Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary, assassinated in 1898.", "i": "https://codexery.com/royalty-and-heads-of-state/img/royalty-and-heads-of-state/empress-elisabeth-of-austria.webp", "c": "Hubertl · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/european-statesmen-prime-ministers/e/european-statesmen-and-prime-ministers/h-h-asquith/": {"t": "H. H. Asquith", "s": "British Liberal prime minister who led the UK into World War I."}, "https://codexery.com/european-statesmen-prime-ministers/e/european-statesmen-and-prime-ministers/henry-campbell-bannerman/": {"t": "Henry Campbell-Bannerman", "s": "Britain's first and only Radical prime minister"}, "https://codexery.com/major-wars/e/major-wars/second-world-war/": {"t": "Second World War", "s": "Global conflict between Allies and Axis, deadliest in history."}, "https://codexery.com/designers-and-craftsmen/e/designers-and-craftsmen/coco-chanel/": {"t": "Coco Chanel", "s": "French fashion designer who defined modern feminine style."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/writers/ava-gardner/": {"t": "Ava Gardner", "s": "The barefoot star of Hollywood's Golden Age."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/frank-sinatra/": {"t": "Frank Sinatra", "s": "The Chairman of the Board"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-eras/e/historical-eras/middle-ages/": {"t": "Middle Ages", "s": "The middle epoch between classical antiquity and the modern period.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-eras/img/historical-eras/middle-ages.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Middle Ages · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/monarchs-and-nobility/e/monarchs-and-nobility/louis-xiii/": {"t": "Louis XIII", "s": "King of France and Navarre, known for ending noble revolts and establishing the Académie française with Cardinal Richelieu."}, "https://codexery.com/science-fantasy-television-series/e/science-fantasy-television-series/highlander-the-series/": {"t": "Highlander: The Series", "s": "An alternative sequel series about Immortals and the Game.", "i": "https://codexery.com/science-fantasy-television-series/img/science-fantasy-television-series/highlander-the-series.webp", "c": "Keystone View Company · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/man-in-the-iron-mask/e/man-in-the-iron-mask/the-man-in-the-iron-mask-1998-film/": {"t": "The Man in the Iron Mask (1998 film)", "s": "Four aging musketeers confront a cruel king and his twin."}, "https://codexery.com/fantasy-adventure-television-series/e/fantasy-adventure-television-series/merlin-2008-tv-series/": {"t": "Merlin (2008 TV series)", "s": "A reimagining of the Arthurian legend focusing on Merlin and Arthur."}, "https://codexery.com/television-shows-about-wizards/e/television-shows-about-wizards/wizards-of-waverly-place/": {"t": "Wizards of Waverly Place", "s": "Three siblings compete to keep their family's wizard powers."}, "https://codexery.com/house-of-cards/e/behind-the-scenes/netflix/": {"t": "Netflix", "s": "The streaming service that ordered and released House of Cards."}, "https://codexery.com/states-of-the-german-empire/e/states-of-the-german-empire/kingdom-of-w-rttemberg/": {"t": "Kingdom of Württemberg", "s": "A constitutional monarchy in southern Germany from 1806 to 1918."}, "https://codexery.com/wound-decorations/e/wound-decorations/memorial-cross/": {"t": "Memorial Cross", "s": "Canadian decoration for families of fallen service members.", "i": "https://codexery.com/wound-decorations/img/wound-decorations/memorial-cross.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Memorial Cross · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/christian-saints-early-church-fathers/e/christian-saints-and-early-church-fathers/mary-mother-of-jesus/": {"t": "Mary, mother of Jesus", "s": "First-century Jewish woman, mother of Jesus, venerated in multiple faiths."}, "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-lakes/e/rivers-and-lakes/krishna-river/": {"t": "Krishna River", "s": "India's third-longest river, flowing 1400 km across the Deccan Plateau to the Bay of Bengal.", "i": "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-lakes/img/rivers-and-lakes/krishna-river.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Krishna River · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/aurangzeb/": {"t": "Aurangzeb", "s": "The sixth Mughal emperor who expanded the empire to its greatest extent."}, "https://codexery.com/writers-poets/e/writers-and-poets/alexander-pope/": {"t": "Alexander Pope", "s": "English poet, translator, and satirist of the Enlightenment era.", "i": "https://codexery.com/writers-poets/img/writers-and-poets/alexander-pope.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Alexander Pope · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/monarchs-and-nobility/e/monarchs-and-nobility/louis-xviii/": {"t": "Louis XVIII", "s": "The constitutional monarch who restored the Bourbon dynasty after Napoleon."}, "https://codexery.com/architectural-styles-and-landmarks/e/architectural-styles-and-landmarks/gothic-revival-architecture/": {"t": "Gothic Revival architecture", "s": "A movement reviving medieval Gothic architecture in the 19th century."}, "https://codexery.com/political-leaders-revolutionaries/e/political-leaders-and-revolutionaries/benito-ju-rez/": {"t": "Benito Juárez", "s": "Zapotec president who led Mexico through civil war and foreign invasion."}, "https://codexery.com/french-colonial-empire/e/french-colonial-empire/second-mexican-empire/": {"t": "Second Mexican Empire", "s": "A French-backed monarchy in Mexico, 1864–1867."}, "https://codexery.com/indigenous-peoples-of-the-world/e/indigenous-peoples-of-the-world/indigenous-peoples-of-mexico/": {"t": "Indigenous peoples of Mexico", "s": "Original foundation of Mexico's pluricultural nation."}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/capitals/mexico-city/": {"t": "Mexico City", "s": "La Ciudad de los Palacios"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-events-places/e/historical-events-and-places/monroe-doctrine/": {"t": "Monroe Doctrine", "s": "U.S. policy opposing foreign intervention in the Western Hemisphere."}, "https://codexery.com/other-european-regions/e/other-european-regions/metropolitan-france/": {"t": "Metropolitan France", "s": "European portion of France, including mainland and Corsica.", "i": "https://codexery.com/other-european-regions/img/other-european-regions/metropolitan-france.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Metropolitan France · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/revolutions-and-conflicts/e/revolutions-and-conflicts/mexican-war-of-independence/": {"t": "Mexican War of Independence", "s": "Armed conflict ending Spanish rule in Mexico."}, "https://codexery.com/major-wars/e/major-wars/mexican-american-war/": {"t": "Mexican–American War", "s": "The Mexican–American War, known in the United States as the Mexican War and in Mexico as the United States intervention in Mexico, was an invasion of Mexico by "}, "https://codexery.com/countries-and-regions/e/countries-and-regions/latin-america/": {"t": "Latin America", "s": "The cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken.", "i": "https://codexery.com/countries-and-regions/img/countries-and-regions/latin-america.webp", "c": "Henrykez · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/treaties-of-the-spanish-empire/e/treaties-of-the-spanish-empire/convention-of-london-1861/": {"t": "Convention of London (1861)", "s": "1861 treaty among France, Spain, and Britain on Mexican debt."}, "https://codexery.com/mexican-cities/e/mexican-cities/veracruz-city/": {"t": "Veracruz (city)", "s": "Mexico's oldest, largest, and historically most significant port city."}, "https://codexery.com/american-and-caribbean-leaders/e/american-and-caribbean-leaders/porfirio-d-az/": {"t": "Porfirio Díaz", "s": "Mexican general and president who ruled for over thirty years during the Porfiriato.", "i": "https://codexery.com/american-and-caribbean-leaders/img/american-and-caribbean-leaders/porfirio-d-az.webp", "c": "Aurelio Escobar Castellanos, Archive · via Wikipedia: Porfirio Díaz · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/colonial-and-post-colonial-leaders/e/colonial-and-post-colonial-leaders/ignacio-zaragoza/": {"t": "Ignacio Zaragoza", "s": "Mexican general who defeated French forces at Puebla."}, "https://codexery.com/mexican-cities/e/mexican-cities/tampico/": {"t": "Tampico", "s": "Mexican port city that led the early oil boom."}, "https://codexery.com/latin-american-states-provinces/e/latin-american-states-provinces/puebla/": {"t": "Puebla", "s": "State in east-central Mexico, home to Puebla City and the Battle of Puebla.", "i": "https://codexery.com/latin-american-states-provinces/img/latin-american-states-provinces/puebla.webp", "c": "Diego Delso · CC BY-SA 3.0"}, "https://codexery.com/cities-and-urban-areas/e/cities-and-urban-areas/monterrey/": {"t": "Monterrey", "s": "Capital of Nuevo León, major industrial and business center."}, "https://codexery.com/u-s-states/e/u-s-states/texas/": {"t": "Texas", "s": "Second-largest U.S. state by area, but first in Fortune 500 headquarters and gross state product."}, "https://codexery.com/latin-american-states-provinces/e/latin-american-states-provinces/sinaloa/": {"t": "Sinaloa", "s": "A northwestern Mexican state with rich agricultural and musical heritage."}, "https://codexery.com/rivers/e/rivers/rio-grande/": {"t": "Rio Grande", "s": "The Rio Grande: a vital, arid-land river forming the U.S.-Mexico border.", "i": "https://codexery.com/rivers/img/rivers/rio-grande.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Rio Grande · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/abraham-lincoln/": {"t": "Abraham Lincoln", "s": "16th president who led the Union through the Civil War and abolished slavery."}, "https://codexery.com/sieges-and-battles/e/sieges-and-battles/siege-of-paris-1870-1871/": {"t": "Siege of Paris (1870–1871)", "s": "A siege that ended not with a capture, but with an armistice."}, "https://codexery.com/states-of-the-german-empire/e/states-of-the-german-empire/kingdom-of-bavaria/": {"t": "Kingdom of Bavaria", "s": "A German kingdom ruled by the Wittelsbachs from 1806 to 1918."}, "https://codexery.com/chinese-inventions/e/chinese-inventions/artillery/": {"t": "Artillery", "s": "Ranged weapons launching munitions far beyond infantry firearms."}, "https://codexery.com/german-empire/e/german-empire/sedantag/": {"t": "Sedantag", "s": "Semi-official German Empire holiday commemorating the 1870 Battle of Sedan."}, "https://codexery.com/political-systems-elections/e/political-systems-and-elections/coup-d-tat/": {"t": "Coup d'état", "s": "Illegal seizure of power by military or elites."}}