Electrification

Electrification means converting a system or device to run on electricity, often by replacing an older power source. In the history of technology and economic development, the term refers to building the infrastructure for generating and distributing electricity. When discussing sustainable energy, electrification involves creating super grids and smart grids that include distributed energy resources like storage, supporting the shift to renewable energy and the conversion of end-uses to electricity.

Different sectors have their own terms: factory electrification, household electrification, rural electrification, and railway electrification. In sustainable energy contexts, transport electrification (electric vehicles) and heating electrification (heat pumps powered by solar panels) are common. It also covers industrial changes, such as replacing coal or coke heating with electric arc furnaces, induction or resistance heating, or electrolysis.

The National Academy of Engineering called electrification "the greatest engineering achievement of the 20th Century," and it remains ongoing in both wealthy and poorer countries.

Electric lighting was a major benefit: it was much brighter than oil or gas lamps, produced no soot, and was cheaper and more convenient than those alternatives. Early electricity was expensive by modern standards, but it was still more affordable than oil or gas lighting. It was also safer, and some companies found that insurance savings alone covered the cost of electricity.

Before widespread electric power, Charles Babbage noted in 1851 that engineers needed a small, flexible power source—between half a man's strength and two horses'—that could start and stop instantly, required little management, and was inexpensive to buy and run. Steam engines, however, needed several hundred horsepower to be efficient, and their smallest commercial versions were about 2 horsepower, often too large for small shops. A small steam engine and boiler could cost $7,000, while a horse cost less than a tenth of that. Many shops used man-powered tools like lathes, and household sewing machines ran on foot treadles. Even dogs were used in treadmills for tasks like churning butter. In the late 1800s, some buildings were designed to supply power from a central steam engine to tenants via line shafts. Electric motors were several times more efficient than small steam engines, thanks to central generation and lower friction losses. They also outperformed human or animal power, with a conversion efficiency of 4–5% compared to 30% for coal power.

Electrification and economic growth are closely linked. In the U.S., each man-hour provided 0.55 horsepower in the 1870s–1880s, rising to 5 horsepower by 1950—an average annual increase of 2.8%, though the rate slowed to 1.5% between 1930 and 1950. The period from 1900 to 1940, when factories and homes were being electrified, saw high productivity and growth. Most studies of electrification focus on industrial core countries in Europe and the U.S. Elsewhere, wired electricity often followed colonial circuits. Historians and sociologists have noted how colonial politics shaped electric grids: in India, language-based regional politics created two separate grids; in colonial Zimbabwe, electrification was racially biased, serving white settlers while excluding Africans; and in Mandate Palestine, British concessions to a Zionist-owned company deepened economic gaps between Arabs and Jews.

Although cities and homes have had electricity since the late 1800s, about 840 million people—mostly in Africa—still lacked grid access in 2017, down from 1.2 billion in 2010. Major gains occurred in the 1970s and 1980s, when access rose from 49% of the world's population in 1970 to 76% in 1990. By the early 2010s, 81–83% of people had electricity.

Clean energy, such as renewables or nuclear power, is mostly generated as electricity. For energy systems to become sustainable, end uses like transport and heating must be electrified. In the U.S. and Canada, heat pumps can be cost-effective when powered by solar panels, offsetting propane heating in rural areas and natural gas heating in cities. A 2023 study examined a residential natural gas heating system and grid electricity.