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First Ivorian Civil War

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First Ivorian Civil War

glichfield · CC BY-SA 2.0

The First Ivorian Civil War was a conflict rooted in a prolonged political succession crisis after President Félix Houphouët-Boigny's death in 1993.[1][2] On 19 September 2002, a rebellion by disaffected troops, coordinated as a simultaneous attack on three cities including Abidjan, marked the start of the war, which subsequently drew international notice and prompted a military intervention by France, Ivory Coast's former colonial power.[3][4][5]

Last updated 2026-10-08 from the source article.

Life and work

Sociologist Francis Akindès notes that Ivoirité valorized Akan and Christian identity but was framed as patriotism using national origin as the measure of "Ivorianness"[6][7][8] France launched Opération Licorne on 22 September 2002, initially to protect foreign nationals, and it later enforced a buffer zone.[9][10] In November 2004, Ivorian aircraft bombed a French base in Bouaké, killing nine French soldiers, and France retaliated by destroying the Ivorian air force.[11] The Ouagadougou Peace Agreement of March 2007, signed by Gbagbo and Soro, led to Soro becoming prime minister and a symbolic disarmament ceremony in July 2007.[12][13][5][14]

A key root cause, according to academic analyses, was the spread of nativist discourse and the ideology of Ivoirité as state policy under President Bédié, which served to marginalize immigrants and northern Ivorians.[15][7][2][8]

What the cited sources add

The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights reported that in February 2004 Ivorian authorities issued a decree to "Ivorianise" workplaces, requiring companies to plan to turn posts over to Ivorians within two years.[16][17] A Mail & Guardian article from March 2004 reported that opposition parties and the New Forces withdrew from the reconciliation government after the crackdown.[18][19] According to 2009 Uppsala Conflict Data Program estimates, the war had between 933 and 1,689 casualties in its deadliest years from 2002 to 2004.[20] A Commission of Inquiry led by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, established in April 2004, found that at least 120 people were killed and 274 wounded when security forces and pro-government militias opened fire on a peace march in Abidjan on 25 March 2004.[21][22]

The Ivorian national football team, captained by Didier Drogba, was credited with boosting national reconciliation; a 2007 qualifying game for the African Cup of Nations, held in the rebel-held city of Bouaké, was seen as a symbol of unity.[23][24]

References

  1. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Banégas, "Côte d'Ivoire: Patriotism, Ethnonationalism and Other African Modes of Self-Writing", African Affairs, 2006, p. 535–552 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org
  2. Richard Banégas, "Côte d’Ivoire: Patriotism, ethnonationalism and other African modes of self-writing", African Affairs (2006), doi:10.1093/afraf/adl035. OpenAlex metadata CC0; paper not read. doi.org
  3. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: McGovern, "International interventions in Côte d'Ivoire: In search of a point of leverage", Accord, 2008 (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  4. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Schiel, "Mutiny in Côte d'Ivoire", Africa Spectrum, 2017, p. 103–115; Speight, "Pathways from rebellion: Rebel-party configurations in Côte d'Ivoire and Burundi", African Affairs, 2017-11-29, p. 21–43; Ero, "Ivory Coast on the brink", International Crisis Group, 2002-12-15; El-Khawas, "Côte d'Ivoire: Ethnic Turmoil and Foreign Intervention", Africa Today, 2014, p. 41–55 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org
  5. El-Khawas, "Côte d'Ivoire: Ethnic Turmoil and Foreign Intervention", Africa Today (2014), doi:10.2979/africatoday.61.2.41. OpenAlex metadata CC0; paper not read. doi.org
  6. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Akindès, "Côte d'Ivoire: Socio-political Crises, 'Ivoirité' and the Course of History", African Sociological Review / Revue Africaine de Sociologie, 2003, p. 11–28; Bah, "Democracy and Civil War: Citizenship and Peacemaking in Côte d'Ivoire", African Affairs, 2010, p. 597–615; Marshall-Fratani, "The War of "Who Is Who": Autochthony, Nationalism, and Citizenship in the Ivoirian Crisis", African Studies Review, 2006, p. 9–43; Akindès, "Côte d'Ivoire: Socio-political Crises, 'Ivoirité' and the Course of History", African Sociologic en.wikipedia.org
  7. Abu Bakarr Bah, "Democracy and civil war: Citizenship and peacemaking in Cote d'Ivoire", African Affairs (2010), doi:10.1093/afraf/adq046. OpenAlex metadata CC0; paper not read. doi.org
  8. Ruth Marshall-Fratani, "The War of “Who Is Who”: Autochthony, Nationalism, and Citizenship in the Ivoirian Crisis", African Studies Review (2006), doi:10.1353/arw.2006.0098. OpenAlex metadata CC0; paper not read. doi.org
  9. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Dobbins, "Europe's Role in Nation-Building: From the Balkans to the Congo", RAND Corporation, 30 October 2023; Novosseloff, "The Many Lives of a Peacekeeping Mission: The UN Operation in Côte d'Ivoire", International Peace Institute, 2018; Novosseloff, "The Many Lives of a Peacekeeping Mission: The UN Operation in Côte d'Ivoire", International Peace Institute, 2018 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org
  10. Open Library record, ISBN 9780833041388 ("Europe's role in nation-building"). CC0 (metadata); book content not read. openlibrary.org
  11. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: "Ivory Coast seethes after attack", BBC News, 2004-11-07; "Three sentenced to life for 2004 air strike on French troops in Cote d'Ivoire", RFI, 2021-04-16; "Victims of Bouaké airstrikes still wait for justice, 15 years after", RFI, 2019-11-08; "Victims of Bouaké airstrikes still wait for justice, 15 years after", RFI, 2019-11-08; Novosseloff, "The Many Lives of a Peacekeeping Mission: The UN Operation in Côte d'Ivoire", International Peace Institute, 2018; "Victims of Bouaké airstrikes still wait for justice, 15 years after", RF en.wikipedia.org
  12. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Novosseloff, "The Many Lives of a Peacekeeping Mission: The UN Operation in Côte d'Ivoire", International Peace Institute, 2018; Novosseloff, "The Many Lives of a Peacekeeping Mission: The UN Operation in Côte d'Ivoire", International Peace Institute, 2018; Piccolino, "David against Goliath in Côte d'Ivoire? Laurent Gbagbo's War against Global Governance", African Affairs, 2012, p. 1–23; Piccolino, "David against Goliath in Côte d'Ivoire? Laurent Gbagbo's War against Global Governance", African Affairs, 2012, p. 1–23; El-Khawas, en.wikipedia.org
  13. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Coulibaly, "Premier Soro tells Ivorians to unite, embrace peace", Reuters, 2007-04-13; El-Khawas, "Côte d'Ivoire: Ethnic Turmoil and Foreign Intervention", Africa Today, 2014, p. 41–55; Aboa, "Ivory Coast's President Gbagbo says war is over", Reuters, 2007-04-16; "Côte d'Ivoire: Soro installe le premier préfet en zone rebelle", Jeune Afrique, 2007-06-18; Duparc, "Rocket attack on Ivorian leader condemned", The Mail & Guardian, 2007-06-30 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org
  14. Giulia Piccolino, "David against Goliath in Cote d'Ivoire? Laurent Gbagbo's war against global governance", African Affairs (2011), doi:10.1093/afraf/adr064. OpenAlex metadata CC0; paper not read. doi.org
  15. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Banégas, "Côte d'Ivoire: Patriotism, Ethnonationalism and Other African Modes of Self-Writing", African Affairs, 2006, p. 535–552; Akindès, "Côte d'Ivoire: Socio-political Crises, 'Ivoirité' and the Course of History", African Sociological Review / Revue Africaine de Sociologie, 2003, p. 11–28; Marshall-Fratani, "The War of "Who Is Who": Autochthony, Nationalism, and Citizenship in the Ivoirian Crisis", African Studies Review, 2006, p. 9–43; Bah, "Democracy and Civil War: Citizenship and Peacemaking in Côte d'Ivoire", African Af en.wikipedia.org
  16. United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "Crisis in Côte d'Ivoire Situation Report No. 23", Relief Web, 2004-03-15. facts only, no text reused. reliefweb.int
  17. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "Crisis in Côte d'Ivoire Situation Report No. 23", Relief Web, 2004-03-15; United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "Crisis in Côte d'Ivoire Situation Report No. 23", Relief Web, 2004-03-15; United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "Crisis in Côte d'Ivoire Situation Report No. 23", Relief Web, 2004-03-15; United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "Crisis in Côte d'Ivoire Situation Report No. 23", Relief Web, 2004-03-15 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org
  18. "Ivorian opposition vows to continue protests", The Mail & Guardian, 2004-03-26. facts only, no text reused. mg.co.za
  19. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "Report of the Commission of Inquiry on the Events Connected with the March Planned for 25 March 2004 in Abidjan", ReliefWeb, 2004-04-29; "Ivorian opposition vows to continue protests", The Mail & Guardian, 2004-03-26 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org
  20. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: "UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset Codebook Version 4", 2009; "Fatalities", United Nations Peacekeeping; United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, "UNHCR recommends the cessation of refugee status for Ivorians", UN Refugee Agency, 2021-10-07 (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  21. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "Report of the Commission of Inquiry on the Events Connected with the March Planned for 25 March 2004 in Abidjan", ReliefWeb, 2004-04-29. facts only, no text reused. reliefweb.int
  22. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: "Now it's happening in the Ivory Coast", International Crisis Group, 2004-04-08 (original not read by us) en.wikipedia.org
  23. Merrill, Austin, "Best Feet Forward", 10 July 2007. facts only, no text reused. vanityfair.com
  24. Wikipedia, "First Ivorian Civil War" (CC BY-SA 4.0), which cites: Merrill, Austin, "Best Feet Forward", 10 July 2007; Merrill, Austin, "Best Feet Forward", 10 July 2007; Grez, "How Didier Drogba and his Ivory Coast teammates helped end a civil war", CNN, 2017-11-11 (we also read that source) en.wikipedia.org

Each numbered sentence above was checked against the source it cites before publication. Sentences citing Wikipedia adapt text from the English Wikipedia article First Ivorian Civil War (contributors), used under CC BY-SA 4.0; this entry is available under the same licence. Other sources were used for facts only; no text or images are copied from them.

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Compiled from Wikipedia and the sources listed below. Text from Wikipedia is available under CC BY-SA 4.0; this entry is adapted from it.

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