{"https://codexery.com/hagia-sophia/e/hagia-sophia/sack-of-constantinople/": {"t": "Sack of Constantinople", "s": "Crusaders sacked Constantinople in 1204, ending the Fourth Crusade."}, "https://codexery.com/imperial-titles/e/imperial-titles/imperatritsa/": {"t": "Imperatritsa", "s": "Russian feminine imperial title, equivalent to empress."}, "https://codexery.com/branches-of-christianity/e/branches-of-christianity/catholic-church/": {"t": "Catholic Church", "s": "The largest Christian church, with 1.28 to 1.41 billion baptized members.", "i": "https://codexery.com/branches-of-christianity/img/branches-of-christianity/catholic-church.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Christianity by country · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/branches-of-christianity/e/branches-of-christianity/eastern-orthodox-church/": {"t": "Eastern Orthodox Church", "s": "Second-largest Christian body; autocephalous communion; no central pope; primus inter pares of Constantinople."}, "/e/medieval-europe/republic-of-venice/": {"t": "Republic of Venice", "s": "A maritime republic that dominated Mediterranean trade for over a millennium."}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/ancient-cities/jerusalem/": {"t": "Jerusalem", "s": "A holy city to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and a focal point of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict."}, "https://codexery.com/former-empires/e/former-empires/empire-of-nicaea/": {"t": "Empire of Nicaea", "s": "Largest Byzantine rump state that recaptured Constantinople in 1261."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-empires/e/ancient-empires/roman-empire/": {"t": "Roman Empire", "s": "Medieval and early modern empire claiming direct Roman succession, dissolved in 1806."}, "https://codexery.com/languages-and-dialects/e/languages-and-dialects/greek-language/": {"t": "Greek language", "s": "Greek is the world's oldest recorded living language."}, "https://codexery.com/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-worl/e/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-world/alexios-i-komnenos/": {"t": "Alexios I Komnenos", "s": "Byzantine emperor who sparked the First Crusade."}, "https://codexery.com/major-islands-and-archipelagos/e/major-islands-and-archipelagos/crete/": {"t": "Crete", "s": "Largest Greek island, centre of Minoan civilization."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-cities/e/ancient-cities/nicomedia/": {"t": "Nicomedia", "s": "Ancient Greek city, Roman eastern capital, center of Christian persecution."}, "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/e/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/aegean-sea/": {"t": "Aegean Sea", "s": "A historically important sea between Europe and Asia.", "i": "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/img/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/aegean-sea.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Aegean Sea · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/italian-regions/e/italian-regions/lombardy/": {"t": "Lombardy", "s": "The most populous region of Italy, second-most populous in the EU, and a global centre for business, fashion, and finance."}, "https://codexery.com/italian-regions/e/italian-regions/northern-italy/": {"t": "Northern Italy", "s": "Northern Italy: economic core and cultural heart of the country."}, "https://codexery.com/characters-in-the-divine-comedy/e/characters-in-the-divine-comedy/frederick-ii-holy-roman-emperor/": {"t": "Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor", "s": "Holy Roman Emperor, polymath, and centralizer of royal power."}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/verona/": {"t": "Verona", "s": "Ancient Roman city, UNESCO site, and setting for Shakespeare's plays."}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/padua/": {"t": "Padua", "s": "Ancient city, home to a 1222 university and the world's oldest botanical garden."}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/coastal/venice/": {"t": "Venice", "s": "The Floating City of Canals and History"}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/cremona/": {"t": "Cremona", "s": "City in Lombardy known for its luthiers and medieval history."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/e/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/mantua/": {"t": "Mantua", "s": "City of the Gonzaga court, birthplace of Virgil, and UNESCO site."}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/bergamo/": {"t": "Bergamo", "s": "City of two centers, UNESCO walls, and the 'City of the Thousand.'"}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/brescia/": {"t": "Brescia", "s": "Ancient Roman city and industrial hub in Lombardy."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/e/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/genoa/": {"t": "Genoa", "s": "Capital of Liguria and historic maritime republic on the Gulf of Genoa."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/e/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/modena/": {"t": "Modena", "s": "City in Emilia-Romagna known for luxury cars and balsamic vinegar."}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/treviso/": {"t": "Treviso", "s": "City in Veneto, Italy, capital of Treviso province."}, "https://codexery.com/legal-concepts-doctrines/e/legal-concepts-and-doctrines/excommunication/": {"t": "Excommunication", "s": "Excommunication is an institutional act of religious censure limiting membership and communion."}, "/e/medieval-europe/medieval-commune/": {"t": "Medieval commune", "s": "Sworn urban alliances for mutual defense and self-governance."}, "https://codexery.com/peninsulas/e/peninsulas/italian-peninsula/": {"t": "Italian Peninsula", "s": "Boot-shaped peninsula comprising much of Italy and the enclaved microstates of San Marino and Vatican City."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/austria/": {"t": "Austria", "s": "A landlocked Central European nation with a rich imperial history and a modern neutral democracy."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/hungary/": {"t": "Hungary", "s": "A landlocked Central European nation with a rich history, from the Kingdom of Hungary to EU membership."}, "https://codexery.com/german-states/e/german-states/hamburg/": {"t": "Hamburg", "s": "Second-largest German city and major Hanseatic port."}, "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/e/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/danube/": {"t": "Danube", "s": "Europe's second-longest river, a historic frontier and trade route.", "i": "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/img/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/danube.webp", "c": "Visions of Domino · via Wikipedia: Danube · CC BY 2.0"}, "https://codexery.com/seas-and-oceans/e/seas-and-oceans/north-sea/": {"t": "North Sea", "s": "A shallow European shelf sea, rich in history, fisheries, and energy resources."}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/cultural/vienna/": {"t": "Vienna", "s": "Capital on the Danube, heart of Austria"}, "https://codexery.com/reformers-and-leaders-of-the-americas-an/e/reformers-and-leaders-of-the-americas-and-beyond/alboin/": {"t": "Alboin", "s": "Lombard king who led his people into Italy."}, "/e/medieval-europe/ostrogothic-kingdom/": {"t": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "s": "Ostrogothic kingdom ruled Italy after deposing Odoacer."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-civilizations/e/ancient-civilizations/saxons/": {"t": "Saxons", "s": "Germanic people of early medieval Old Saxony, conquered by Charlemagne."}, "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-lakes/e/rivers-and-lakes/elbe/": {"t": "Elbe", "s": "One of the major rivers of Central Europe, flowing from the Giant Mountains to the North Sea.", "i": "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-lakes/img/rivers-and-lakes/elbe.webp", "c": "Roy Zuo · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-roman-triumphators/e/ancient-roman-triumphators/tiberius/": {"t": "Tiberius", "s": "Second Roman emperor and successful general who expanded the northern frontier."}, "/e/medieval-europe/renaissance-of-the-12th-century/": {"t": "Renaissance of the 12th century", "s": "A period of intellectual, economic, and artistic transformation in the High Middle Ages."}, "https://codexery.com/historians-and-philosophers-of-history/e/historians-and-philosophers-of-history/jacob-burckhardt/": {"t": "Jacob Burckhardt", "s": "Swiss historian who shaped the study of the Renaissance and cultural history."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-and-medieval-historians-and-phil/e/ancient-and-medieval-historians-and-philosophers/boethius/": {"t": "Boethius", "s": "Roman philosopher and translator of Greek classics into Latin.", "i": "https://codexery.com/ancient-and-medieval-historians-and-phil/img/ancient-and-medieval-historians-and-philosophers/boethius.webp", "c": "Boethius · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/charlemagne/": {"t": "Charlemagne", "s": "Father of Europe"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/bede/": {"t": "Bede", "s": "Father of English History and Doctor of the Church"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/religious/isidore-of-seville/": {"t": "Isidore of Seville", "s": "The last scholar of the ancient world"}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-spain/e/world-heritage-sites-in-spain/toledo-spain/": {"t": "Toledo, Spain", "s": "Historic city on the Tagus, former Visigothic capital and UNESCO site."}, "https://codexery.com/former-empires/e/former-empires/carolingian-empire/": {"t": "Carolingian Empire", "s": "Frankish empire that revived the Roman imperial title in the West."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/louis-the-pious/": {"t": "Louis the Pious", "s": "The only surviving son of Charlemagne who ruled the Franks and faced civil war among his sons."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/scientists/alcuin/": {"t": "Alcuin", "s": "Anglo-Saxon scholar and teacher who shaped the Carolingian Renaissance."}, "https://codexery.com/legal-systems-concepts/e/legal-systems-and-concepts/jurisprudence/": {"t": "Jurisprudence", "s": "The philosophy of law, examining what law is and ought to be."}, "https://codexery.com/former-empires/e/former-empires/francia/": {"t": "Francia", "s": "Largest post-Roman kingdom in Western Europe, founded by Clovis I."}, "https://codexery.com/philosophical-movements-and-schools/e/philosophical-movements-and-schools/ancient-greek-philosophy/": {"t": "Ancient Greek philosophy", "s": "Ancient Greek philosophy shaped Western thought from its 6th century BCE origins."}, "https://codexery.com/islamic-concepts-and-practices/e/islamic-concepts-and-practices/islamic-philosophy/": {"t": "Islamic philosophy", "s": "Philosophy emerging from the Islamic tradition, blending reason and faith."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/aristotle/": {"t": "Aristotle", "s": "Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath, founder of the Peripatetic school."}, "https://codexery.com/lost-civilizations/e/lost-civilizations/the-hanseatic-league/": {"t": "The Hanseatic League", "s": "A medieval commercial and defensive network of merchant guilds and towns."}, "https://codexery.com/science-and-technology/e/science-and-technology/natural-science/": {"t": "Natural science", "s": "Empirical study of natural phenomena through observation and experimentation."}, "https://codexery.com/vikingage/e/the-viking-age/rollo/": {"t": "Rollo", "s": "First ruler of Normandy, Viking leader who secured lands through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-eras/e/historical-eras/middle-ages/": {"t": "Middle Ages", "s": "The middle epoch between classical antiquity and the modern period.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-eras/img/historical-eras/middle-ages.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Middle Ages · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/forza/e/story/british-isles/": {"t": "British Isles", "s": "The North Atlantic archipelago of Great Britain, Ireland and thousands of smaller islands.", "i": "https://codexery.com/forza/img/story/british-isles.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: British Isles · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/governance-of-the-british-empire/e/governance-of-the-british-empire/crown-dependencies/": {"t": "Crown Dependencies", "s": "Self-governing possessions of the British Crown in the British Isles.", "i": "https://codexery.com/governance-of-the-british-empire/img/governance-of-the-british-empire/crown-dependencies.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Crown Dependencies · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/architectural-styles-and-elements/e/architectural-styles-and-elements/romanesque-architecture/": {"t": "Romanesque architecture", "s": "First pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman architecture.", "i": "https://codexery.com/architectural-styles-and-elements/img/architectural-styles-and-elements/romanesque-architecture.webp", "c": "Txllxt TxllxT · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/dynasties-and-kingdoms/e/dynasties-and-kingdoms/kingdom-of-sicily/": {"t": "Kingdom of Sicily", "s": "A medieval kingdom spanning Sicily, southern Italy, and briefly North Africa."}, "/e/medieval-europe/norman-conquest-of-southern-italy/": {"t": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "s": "Decades-long Norman consolidation of southern Italy into a kingdom."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-events-places/e/historical-events-and-places/reconquista/": {"t": "Reconquista", "s": "Series of Christian campaigns ending Muslim rule in Iberia."}, "https://codexery.com/countries-and-regions/e/countries-and-regions/levant/": {"t": "Levant", "s": "A historical and cultural subregion of West Asia along the Eastern Mediterranean.", "i": "https://codexery.com/countries-and-regions/img/countries-and-regions/levant.webp", "c": "Bassem Fleifel · CC BY-SA 1.0"}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/scotland/": {"t": "Scotland", "s": "A country of ancient kingdoms, rugged highlands, and deep lochs."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/wales/": {"t": "Wales", "s": "A country of mountains, coast, and ancient culture, part of the United Kingdom."}, "https://codexery.com/major-islands-and-archipelagos/e/major-islands-and-archipelagos/canary-islands/": {"t": "Canary Islands", "s": "The Fortunate Isles: a subtropical archipelago linking Africa, Europe, and the Americas."}, "https://codexery.com/historiography-methods/e/historiography-and-methods/historian/": {"t": "Historian", "s": "Scholar who studies and writes about the past.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historiography-methods/img/historiography-and-methods/historian.webp", "c": "Anasuyas · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/languages-of-the-world/e/languages-of-the-world/swedish-language/": {"t": "Swedish language", "s": "North Germanic language spoken in Sweden and parts of Finland."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/france/": {"t": "France", "s": "A global centre of art, science, cuisine and philosophy."}, "https://codexery.com/european-regions/e/european-regions/normandy/": {"t": "Normandy", "s": "The historic homeland of the Normans, spanning mainland France and the Channel Islands."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-cultural-concepts/e/historical-and-cultural-concepts/feudalism/": {"t": "Feudalism", "s": "A system of land-for-service obligations in medieval Europe."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/attila/": {"t": "Attila", "s": "Ruler of the Huns from 434 to 453, known as the Scourge of God."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/e/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/ravenna/": {"t": "Ravenna", "s": "Capital of the Western Roman Empire and mosaics."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/justinian-i/": {"t": "Justinian I", "s": "Roman emperor who codified Roman law and reconquered lost territories."}, "/e/medieval-europe/lombards/": {"t": "Lombards", "s": "Germanic conquerors of Italy, from the Elbe to the Po."}, "https://codexery.com/english-heroic-legends/e/english-heroic-legends/ermanaric/": {"t": "Ermanaric", "s": "Greuthungian king of Oium, later a figure in Germanic legend."}, "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/e/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/black-sea/": {"t": "Black Sea", "s": "Marginal sea between Europe and Asia with anoxic deep waters.", "i": "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/img/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/black-sea.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Black Sea · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-civilizations/e/ancient-civilizations/sarmatians/": {"t": "Sarmatians", "s": "Iranian equestrian nomads who dominated the Pontic steppe for nearly a millennium."}, "https://codexery.com/rivers/e/rivers/vistula/": {"t": "Vistula", "s": "Poland's longest river and a national symbol of cultural identity."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/poland/": {"t": "Poland", "s": "A Central European nation with a rich history, from the Piast dynasty to the Solidarity movement."}, "https://codexery.com/other-european-regions/e/other-european-regions/g-taland/": {"t": "Götaland", "s": "One of three lands of Sweden, home of the Geats.", "i": "https://codexery.com/other-european-regions/img/other-european-regions/g-taland.webp", "c": "Azurescapegoat · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/languages-and-dialects/e/languages-and-dialects/germanic-languages/": {"t": "Germanic languages", "s": "Branch of Indo-European including English, German, Dutch, and Scandinavian languages."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/italy/": {"t": "Italy", "s": "A cultural superpower with the eighth-largest economy and the most UNESCO sites."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-eras/e/historical-eras/pax-romana/": {"t": "Pax Romana", "s": "A roughly 200-year Roman golden age of relative peace and stability.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-eras/img/historical-eras/pax-romana.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Pax Romana · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-worl/e/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-world/anastasius-i-dicorus/": {"t": "Anastasius I Dicorus", "s": "Eastern Roman emperor who reformed finances and built lasting defenses.", "i": "https://codexery.com/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-worl/img/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-world/anastasius-i-dicorus.webp", "c": "Miguel Hermoso Cuesta · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/french-regions/e/french-regions/aquitaine/": {"t": "Aquitaine", "s": "Historical region of southwestern France, former kingdom and duchy."}, "/e/medieval-europe/normans/": {"t": "Normans", "s": "From Norse raiders to rulers of Europe"}, "https://codexery.com/cities-of-the-world/e/cities-of-the-world/bordeaux/": {"t": "Bordeaux", "s": "Port city and world capital of wine in southwestern France.", "i": "https://codexery.com/cities-of-the-world/img/cities-of-the-world/bordeaux.webp", "c": "David.J Janssen · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/characters-in-the-divine-comedy/e/characters-in-the-divine-comedy/hugh-capet/": {"t": "Hugh Capet", "s": "Founder of the Capetian dynasty and King of the Franks.", "i": "https://codexery.com/characters-in-the-divine-comedy/img/characters-in-the-divine-comedy/hugh-capet.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Hugh Capet · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/french-regions/e/french-regions/burgundy/": {"t": "Burgundy", "s": "Historical region in France, known for its wine and medieval power."}, "https://codexery.com/french-regions/e/french-regions/languedoc/": {"t": "Languedoc", "s": "Former province of France, with no single capital and a complex history of integration."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/mieszko-i/": {"t": "Mieszko I", "s": "First Christian ruler of Poland, founder of the unified Polish state."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/casimir-iii-the-great/": {"t": "Casimir III the Great", "s": "The last Piast king who built a stronger Poland through law, diplomacy, and learning."}, "https://codexery.com/european-regions/e/european-regions/pomerania/": {"t": "Pomerania", "s": "A historical Baltic region split between Poland and Germany, known for its coastal lowlands, lakes, and islands."}, "https://codexery.com/european-medieval-monarchs/e/european-medieval-monarchs/casimir-i-the-restorer/": {"t": "Casimir I the Restorer", "s": "Duke of Poland who restored unity after a period of chaos."}, "/e/medieval-europe/ottonian-dynasty/": {"t": "Ottonian dynasty", "s": "The Ottonian dynasty, a Saxon line of German monarchs, ruled from 919 to 1024."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-poland/e/world-heritage-sites-in-poland/krak-w/": {"t": "Kraków", "s": "Historic royal capital and UNESCO World Heritage city in southern Poland."}, "https://codexery.com/european-medieval-monarchs/e/european-medieval-monarchs/boles-aw-iii-wrymouth/": {"t": "Bolesław III Wrymouth", "s": "Duke who conquered Pomerania and divided Poland among his sons."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/louis-i-of-hungary/": {"t": "Louis I of Hungary", "s": "King of Hungary, Croatia, and Poland who expanded royal authority and fought wars across Central and Southern Europe."}, "https://codexery.com/government-and-law/e/government-and-law/politics/": {"t": "Politics", "s": "Activity of settling affairs in an organized society via government."}, "https://codexery.com/great-collapses/e/great-collapses/the-fall-of-the-western-roman-empire/": {"t": "The Fall of the Western Roman Empire", "s": "Loss of central political control in the Western Roman Empire."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/euclid/": {"t": "Euclid", "s": "Ancient Greek mathematician, author of the Elements."}, "https://codexery.com/economic-concepts/e/economic-concepts/economic-growth/": {"t": "Economic growth", "s": "Economic growth is the increase in the quantity and quality of goods and services a society produces, measured by real GDP or GDP per capita.", "i": "https://codexery.com/economic-concepts/img/economic-concepts/economic-growth.webp", "c": "DavidMCEddy · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/avicenna/": {"t": "Avicenna", "s": "Preeminent philosopher and physician of the Islamic Golden Age."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/maimonides/": {"t": "Maimonides", "s": "Sephardic Jewish rabbi, philosopher, and physician of the Middle Ages"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophers-thinkers/e/philosophers-and-thinkers/averroes/": {"t": "Averroes", "s": "Andalusian polymath and jurist, known as 'The Commentator' for his commentaries on Aristotle."}, "https://codexery.com/cathedrals/e/great-cathedrals/chartres-cathedral/": {"t": "Chartres 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"Roman general, dictator, and author who transformed the Republic."}, "https://codexery.com/architectural-styles-and-landmarks/e/architectural-styles-and-landmarks/gothic-architecture/": {"t": "Gothic architecture", "s": "Medieval architectural style defined by the pointed arch and verticality."}, "https://codexery.com/languages/e/languages/latin/": {"t": "Latin", "s": "A classical language of the Italic branch, Latin evolved into the Romance languages and remained a key scholarly tongue into the early 19th century."}, "https://codexery.com/great-collapses/e/great-collapses/the-black-death/": {"t": "The Black Death", "s": "The deadliest pandemic in recorded history, the Black Death reshaped Europe and the Middle East.", "i": "https://codexery.com/great-collapses/img/great-collapses/the-black-death.webp", "c": "Jakub Hałun · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/dogado/": {"t": "Dogado", "s": "Metropolitan 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"https://codexery.com/european-medieval-monarchs/e/european-medieval-monarchs/charles-ii-of-navarre/": {"t": "Charles II of Navarre", "s": "King of Navarre who shifted alliances in the Hundred Years' War."}, "/e/medieval-europe/peasants-revolt/": {"t": "Peasants' Revolt", "s": "Major English uprising in 1381, best documented revolt of the period."}, "https://codexery.com/historiography-methods/e/historiography-and-methods/periodization/": {"t": "Periodization", "s": "Categorizing the past into named blocks for analysis."}, "https://codexery.com/major-wars/e/major-wars/hundred-years-war/": {"t": "Hundred Years' War", "s": "The Hundred Years' War was not a single continuous battle but a long, stop-start series of conflicts between England and France, lasting from 1337 to 1453."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-empires/e/ancient-empires/ancient-rome/": {"t": "Ancient Rome", "s": "Ancient Rome spanned from 753 BC to 476 AD."}, 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"https://codexery.com/regions-cultural-spheres/img/regions-and-cultural-spheres/americas.webp", "c": "GrandEscogriffe · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/explorers/e/great-explorers/vasco-da-gama/": {"t": "Vasco da Gama", "s": "The Portuguese explorer who opened the sea route to India", "i": "https://codexery.com/explorers/img/great-explorers/vasco-da-gama.webp", "c": "Diego Delso · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/modern-conflicts/e/modern-conflicts/world-war-i/": {"t": "World War I", "s": "Global conflict between Allies and Central Powers, 1914–1918."}, "https://codexery.com/christian-church-bodies/e/christian-church-bodies/christendom/": {"t": "Christendom", "s": "The global Christian community and its historical polity."}, "https://codexery.com/former-empires/e/former-empires/mongol-empire/": {"t": "Mongol Empire", "s": "Largest contiguous land empire in history."}, "https://codexery.com/chinese-inventions/e/chinese-inventions/movable-type/": {"t": "Movable type", "s": 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"https://codexery.com/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/img/legal-scholars-and-political-theorists/plato.webp", "c": "Marie-Lan Nguyen · via Wikipedia: Plato · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/classical-philosophy-rhetoric/e/classical-philosophy-and-rhetoric/phaedo/": {"t": "Phaedo", "s": "Follower of Socrates and narrator of his final dialogue."}, "https://codexery.com/explorers-pioneers/e/explorers-and-pioneers/fibonacci/": {"t": "Fibonacci", "s": "Italian mathematician who popularized Hindu–Arabic numerals in Europe."}, "https://codexery.com/indian-inventions/e/indian-inventions/hindu-arabic-numeral-system/": {"t": "Hindu–Arabic numeral system", "s": "A decimal positional system with earliest clear evidence from the 5th–6th centuries, developed by Indian mathematicians and later adopted by Arabs."}, "https://codexery.com/arab-inventions/e/arab-inventions/arabic-numerals/": {"t": "Arabic numerals", "s": "Symbols for numbers, originating in North Africa, adopted 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"https://codexery.com/european-medieval-monarchs/e/european-medieval-monarchs/conrad-ii-holy-roman-emperor/": {"t": "Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor", "s": "First Salian emperor who united Germany, Italy, and Burgundy."}, "https://codexery.com/european-regions/e/european-regions/emilia-romagna/": {"t": "Emilia-Romagna", "s": "Wealthy Italian region known for food, motors, and ancient university."}, "/e/medieval-europe/republic-of-pisa/": {"t": "Republic of Pisa", "s": "A medieval maritime republic that dominated Mediterranean trade for a century."}, "https://codexery.com/amalfi-coast/e/amalfi-coast/duchy-of-amalfi/": {"t": "Duchy of Amalfi", "s": "A medieval maritime republic that dominated Mediterranean trade."}, "/e/medieval-europe/republic-of-ancona/": {"t": "Republic of Ancona", "s": "Medieval maritime republic and central Italy's gateway to the Orient."}, "https://codexery.com/regions-cultural-spheres/e/regions-and-cultural-spheres/europe/": {"t": "Europe", "s": "Second-smallest 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{"t": "Immanuel Kant", "s": "Central thinker of the Enlightenment, known for transcendental idealism and the categorical imperative."}, "https://codexery.com/art-movements/e/art-movements/byzantine-art/": {"t": "Byzantine art", "s": "Art of the Byzantine Empire and its cultural inheritors."}, "https://codexery.com/countries-and-regions/e/countries-and-regions/north-africa/": {"t": "North Africa", "s": "A region of diverse definitions, ancient civilizations, and deep cultural ties to the Arab world and the Mediterranean."}, "https://codexery.com/languages/e/languages/italian-language/": {"t": "Italian language", "s": "A Romance language of the Indo-European family, standardised from literary Florentine Tuscan."}, "https://codexery.com/greek-inventions/e/greek-inventions/democracy/": {"t": "Democracy", "s": "Government where power is vested in the people."}, "https://codexery.com/christian-church-bodies/e/christian-church-bodies/diocese/": {"t": "Diocese", "s": "Ecclesiastical district under a bishop's jurisdiction."}, "https://codexery.com/plateaus-and-plains/e/plateaus-and-plains/rhineland/": {"t": "Rhineland", "s": "Loosely defined German region along the Rhine, industrial heartland."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/spain/": {"t": "Spain", "s": "A country spanning the Iberian Peninsula, with a history from Roman Hispania to a modern constitutional monarchy."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-cultural-concepts/e/historical-and-cultural-concepts/guild/": {"t": "Guild", "s": "Professional associations regulating craft and trade across eras and regions.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-cultural-concepts/img/historical-and-cultural-concepts/guild.webp", "c": "Sam.Donvil · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-spain/e/world-heritage-sites-in-spain/burgos/": {"t": "Burgos", "s": "Historic city and former Francoist headquarters in northern Spain."}, "/e/medieval-europe/peace-and-truce-of-god/": {"t": "Peace and Truce of 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baptized members worldwide as of 2026."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-mysteries/e/ancient-mysteries/the-knights-templar/": {"t": "The Knights Templar", "s": "Medieval Catholic military order and early bankers."}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-greek-military-equipment/e/ancient-greek-military-equipment/javelin/": {"t": "Javelin", "s": "A light spear thrown by hand, used in war, hunting, and sport."}, "https://codexery.com/archery/e/archery/bow-and-arrow/": {"t": "Bow and arrow", "s": "A prehistoric ranged weapon system still used for hunting and sport."}, "https://codexery.com/archery/e/archery/arbalist-crossbowman/": {"t": "Arbalist (crossbowman)", "s": "A crossbowman, also called an arbalist or arbalister."}, "https://codexery.com/indigenous-peoples-of-the-world/e/indigenous-peoples-of-the-world/mongols/": {"t": "Mongols", "s": "East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia and parts of China and Siberia."}, "https://codexery.com/castles-by-type/e/castles-by-type/concentric-castle/": {"t": "Concentric castle", "s": "A castle with two or more concentric curtain walls for layered defense."}, "https://codexery.com/castle-architecture/e/castle-architecture/drawbridge/": {"t": "Drawbridge", "s": "A defensive bridge raised to deny entry to attackers."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-danger/e/world-heritage-sites-in-danger/dubrovnik/": {"t": "Dubrovnik", "s": "Medieval walled city on the Adriatic coast."}, "https://codexery.com/early-church-fathers-and-saints/e/early-church-fathers-and-saints/john-chrysostom/": {"t": "John Chrysostom", "s": "Church Father and Archbishop of Constantinople known for eloquent preaching.", "i": "https://codexery.com/early-church-fathers-and-saints/img/early-church-fathers-and-saints/john-chrysostom.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: John Chrysostom · see source"}, "/e/medieval-europe/late-middle-ages/": {"t": "Late Middle Ages", "s": "Crisis and transformation in 14th–15th century Europe."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/e/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/benevento/": {"t": "Benevento", "s": "Ancient Samnite city on the Appian Way, later a Roman colony."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-events-places/e/historical-events-and-places/norman-conquest/": {"t": "Norman Conquest", "s": "11th-century invasion that made William the Conqueror king of England."}, "https://codexery.com/semi-legendary-kings-of-sweden/e/semi-legendary-kings-of-sweden/bj-rn-ironside/": {"t": "Björn Ironside", "s": "Norse Viking chief and Swedish king, son of Ragnar Lodbrok."}, "https://codexery.com/vikingage/e/the-viking-age/the-varangian-guard/": {"t": "The Varangian Guard", "s": "Elite foreign bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors.", "i": "https://codexery.com/vikingage/img/the-viking-age/the-varangian-guard.webp", "c": "Silar · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/vikingage/e/the-viking-age/harald-hardrada/": {"t": "Harald Hardrada", "s": "King of Norway whose death marked the end of the Viking Age."}, "https://codexery.com/individual-angels/e/individual-angels/michael-archangel/": {"t": "Michael (archangel)", "s": "Archangel, warrior of God, and guardian prince of Israel."}, "https://codexery.com/michael/e/michael/gargano/": {"t": "Gargano", "s": "Historical sub-region and promontory in Apulia, Italy."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/hannibal/": {"t": "Hannibal", "s": "Carthaginian general who crossed the Alps and fought Rome in the Second Punic War."}, "https://codexery.com/mountain-ranges-and-massifs/e/mountain-ranges-and-massifs/apennine-mountains/": {"t": "Apennine Mountains", "s": "The mountain range forming the backbone of peninsular Italy."}, "https://codexery.com/european-regions/e/european-regions/calabria/": {"t": "Calabria", "s": "Southern Italian region with Greek roots and linguistic diversity."}, "https://codexery.com/mothers-of-holy-roman-emperors/e/mothers-of-holy-roman-emperors/agnes-of-poitou/": {"t": "Agnes of Poitou", "s": "Empress and regent of the Holy Roman Empire."}, "https://codexery.com/european-regions/e/european-regions/molise/": {"t": "Molise", "s": "Second smallest Italian region, created in 1963 from Abruzzo."}, "https://codexery.com/straits-channels-and-seas/e/straits-channels-and-seas/strait-of-messina/": {"t": "Strait of Messina", "s": "Narrow strait linking Sicily to mainland Italy."}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/e/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/catania/": {"t": "Catania", "s": "Second-largest Sicilian city by population, at the base of Mount Etna."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/basil-ii/": {"t": "Basil II", "s": "The Bulgar Slayer who expanded the Byzantine Empire to its greatest extent in four centuries."}, "https://codexery.com/vikingage/e/the-viking-age/the-viking-age/": {"t": "The Viking Age", "s": "Norsemen expanded across Europe and reached North America during the Viking Age."}, "https://codexery.com/vikingage/e/the-viking-age/cnut-the-great/": {"t": "Cnut the Great", "s": "King of England, Denmark, and Norway; ruler of the North Sea Empire.", "i": "https://codexery.com/vikingage/img/the-viking-age/cnut-the-great.webp", "c": "William Robert Shepherd · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/regions-of-england/e/regions-of-england/essex/": {"t": "Essex", "s": "Ceremonial county in South East England with ancient woodland and long coastline."}, "https://codexery.com/rivers-of-europe/e/rivers-of-europe/river-thames/": {"t": "River Thames", "s": "Longest river entirely in England, flowing through London."}, "https://codexery.com/vikings/e/characters/housecarl/": {"t": "Housecarl", "s": "Non-servile household bodyguards of medieval Northern Europe."}, "https://codexery.com/islands/e/islands/zealand/": {"t": "Zealand", "s": "Five southernmost groups of New Zealand outlying islands, collectively a UNESCO World Heritage Site."}, "https://codexery.com/cultural-and-historical-regions/e/cultural-and-historical-regions/northern-europe/": {"t": "Northern Europe", "s": "A diverse region of northern Europe defined by geography, climate, and multiple classification systems."}, "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/e/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/baltic-sea/": {"t": "Baltic Sea", "s": "The world's largest brackish water basin, an arm of the Atlantic enclosed by nine countries.", "i": "https://codexery.com/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/img/rivers-and-seas-of-the-world/baltic-sea.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: White Sea–Baltic Canal · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-eras/e/historical-eras/late-antiquity/": {"t": "Late antiquity", "s": "Period of transformation from classical antiquity to medieval worlds."}, "/e/medieval-europe/ostrogoths/": {"t": "Ostrogoths", "s": "Germanic people who founded a kingdom in Italy under Theodoric."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-cultural-concepts/e/historical-and-cultural-concepts/patrician-ancient-rome/": {"t": "Patrician (ancient Rome)", "s": "Original ruling class of ancient Rome, distinguished from plebeians."}, "https://codexery.com/international-law-diplomacy/e/international-law-and-diplomacy/roman-law/": {"t": "Roman law", "s": "The legal system of ancient Rome, spanning over a thousand years of jurisprudence and influencing much of Western and Eastern European law."}, "https://codexery.com/christian-theology/e/christian-theology/arianism/": {"t": "Arianism", "s": "A nontrinitarian doctrine named after Arius, condemned as heresy."}, "https://codexery.com/specific-regions/e/specific-regions/harz/": {"t": "Harz", "s": "A highland area in northern Germany with the region's highest elevations."}, "https://codexery.com/mothers-of-holy-roman-emperors/e/mothers-of-holy-roman-emperors/matilda-of-ringelheim/": {"t": "Matilda of Ringelheim", "s": "Saxon queen, mother of Otto the 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designer, poet, and socialist activist"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-cultural-concepts/e/historical-and-cultural-concepts/manorialism/": {"t": "Manorialism", "s": "Medieval land tenure system centred on manor and serf labour."}, "https://codexery.com/european-medieval-monarchs/e/european-medieval-monarchs/charles-v-of-france/": {"t": "Charles V of France", "s": "King of France who reconquered territory from the English."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/leaders/john-of-gaunt/": {"t": "John of Gaunt", "s": "English prince, military leader and statesman; founder of the House of Lancaster.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/img/leaders/john-of-gaunt.webp", "c": "Said variously to be attributed to Lucas Cornelisz de Kock (1495–1552) (who however died 41 years before the painting is said (by Oliver Harris, 2010) to have b · via Wikipedia: John of Gaunt · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/philosophers-thinkers/e/philosophers-and-thinkers/john-wycliffe/": {"t": "John Wycliffe", "s": "English scholastic philosopher and reformer, precursor to Protestantism"}, "https://codexery.com/epic-poetry-myth/e/epic-poetry-and-myth/piers-plowman/": {"t": "Piers Plowman", "s": "Middle English allegorical poem by William Langland."}, "https://codexery.com/classical-medieval-poets/e/classical-and-medieval-poets/john-gower/": {"t": "John Gower", "s": "English poet, contemporary of Langland, friend of Chaucer.", "i": "https://codexery.com/classical-medieval-poets/img/classical-and-medieval-poets/john-gower.webp", "c": "Unknown authorUnknown author · via Wikipedia: John Gower · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-empires-rulers/e/ancient-empires-rulers/charles-v-holy-roman-emperor/": {"t": "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor", "s": "Charles V inherited and then led the rising House of Habsburg, ruling a vast collection of European and American territories that became the first realm describ"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-events-places/e/historical-events-and-places/peace-of-westphalia/": {"t": "Peace of Westphalia", "s": "The Peace of Westphalia, known in German as the Westfälischer Friede, refers to two separate peace treaties signed in October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of "}, "https://codexery.com/branches-of-christianity/e/branches-of-christianity/protestantism/": {"t": "Protestantism", "s": "Christian movement originating in the 16th-century Protestant Reformation."}, "https://codexery.com/german-states/e/german-states/saxony/": {"t": "Saxony", "s": "A German state with a long history as duchy, electorate, and kingdom."}, "https://codexery.com/european-monarchs-consorts/e/european-monarchs-and-consorts/francis-i-holy-roman-emperor/": {"t": "Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor", "s": "Last non-Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor and husband of Maria Theresa."}, "https://codexery.com/biology-concepts/e/biology-concepts/heredity/": {"t": "Heredity", "s": "Passing of traits from parents to offspring via DNA."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-cultural-concepts/e/historical-and-cultural-concepts/nobility/": {"t": "Nobility", "s": "Hereditary social class ranked below royalty, with varied privileges.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-cultural-concepts/img/historical-and-cultural-concepts/nobility.webp", "c": "Unknown author · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/duchies-and-electorates-of-the-holy-roma/e/duchies-and-electorates-of-the-holy-roman-empire/electorate-of-trier/": {"t": "Electorate of Trier", "s": "Ecclesiastical principality and electorate of the Holy Roman Empire."}, "https://codexery.com/duchies-and-electorates-of-the-holy-roma/e/duchies-and-electorates-of-the-holy-roman-empire/electorate-of-cologne/": {"t": "Electorate of Cologne", "s": "Ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire."}, "https://codexery.com/european-regions/e/european-regions/liguria/": {"t": "Liguria", "s": "A narrow Italian region between the Alps, Apennines, and Ligurian Sea."}, "https://codexery.com/overseas-empires/e/overseas-empires/genoese-colonies/": {"t": "Genoese colonies", "s": "Mediterranean and Black Sea trade posts of the Genoese Republic."}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-genoa/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-genoa/genoese-gazaria/": {"t": "Genoese Gazaria", "s": "Genoese colonial possessions in Crimea and the Black Sea region."}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-genoa/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-genoa/lesbos/": {"t": "Lesbos", "s": "Greek island in the northeastern Aegean Sea."}, "https://codexery.com/dynasties-and-kingdoms/e/dynasties-and-kingdoms/spanish-empire/": {"t": "Spanish Empire", "s": "A global colonial empire spanning four centuries and multiple continents."}, "https://codexery.com/straits-channels-and-seas/e/straits-channels-and-seas/tyrrhenian-sea/": {"t": "Tyrrhenian Sea", "s": "Part of the Mediterranean Sea off western Italy."}, "https://codexery.com/government-and-law/e/government-and-law/republic/": {"t": "Republic", "s": "A state where political power rests with the people."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/el-cid/": {"t": "El Cid", "s": "Castilian knight and ruler who dominated the Levante and became Spain's national hero."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/pope-urban-ii/": {"t": "Pope Urban II", "s": "Pope who launched the First Crusade"}, "https://codexery.com/capital-cities-of-africa/e/capital-cities-of-africa/tunis/": {"t": "Tunis", "s": "Capital of Tunisia, historic city on the Gulf of Tunis."}, "https://codexery.com/castles-and-fortifications-of-the/e/castles-and-fortifications-of-the-knights-hospitaller/tripoli-lebanon/": {"t": "Tripoli, Lebanon", "s": "Second-largest city in Lebanon with a crusader castle.", "i": "https://codexery.com/castles-and-fortifications-of-the/img/castles-and-fortifications-of-the-knights-hospitaller/tripoli-lebanon.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Tripoli, Lebanon · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/cultural/cairo/": {"t": "Cairo", "s": "The city of a thousand minarets"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/saladin/": {"t": "Saladin", "s": "Founder of the Ayyubid dynasty and sultan of Egypt and Syria."}, "https://codexery.com/castles-in-italy/e/castles-in-italy/cascina/": {"t": "Cascina", "s": "Comune in Tuscany, site of a 1364 battle between Pisa and Florence."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/croatia/": {"t": "Croatia", "s": "A country in Central and Southeastern Europe on the Adriatic Sea, with a rich history and a modern high-income economy."}, "https://codexery.com/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasti/e/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasties/first-french-empire/": {"t": "First French Empire", "s": "Empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte, dominating early 19th-century Europe.", "i": "https://codexery.com/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasti/img/early-modern-state-formation-and-dynasties/first-french-empire.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: First French Empire · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/e/territories-of-the-republic-of-venice/lastovo/": {"t": "Lastovo", "s": "Remote Adriatic archipelago with Venetian architecture and nature park status."}, "https://codexery.com/indian-states/e/indian-states/goa/": {"t": "Goa", "s": "India's smallest state by area, with a rich Portuguese heritage and vibrant biodiversity.", "i": "https://codexery.com/indian-states/img/indian-states/goa.webp", "c": "Fredericknoronha · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/wolves-in-folklore-religion-and/e/wolves-in-folklore-religion-and-mythology/saint-blaise/": {"t": "Saint Blaise", "s": "Physician, bishop, and martyr invoked against throat ailments."}, "https://codexery.com/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-worl/e/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-world/constantine-vii/": {"t": "Constantine VII", "s": "Byzantine emperor and scholar who compiled key historical and agronomic works.", "i": "https://codexery.com/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-worl/img/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-world/constantine-vii.webp", "c": "Classical Numismatic Group · CC BY-SA 2.5"}, "https://codexery.com/ancient-civilizations/e/ancient-civilizations/pannonian-avars/": {"t": "Pannonian Avars", "s": "Eurasian nomads who ruled the Carpathian Basin for centuries.", "i": "https://codexery.com/ancient-civilizations/img/ancient-civilizations/pannonian-avars.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Pannonian Avars · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/ethnic-groups/e/ethnic-groups/south-slavs/": {"t": "South Slavs", "s": "South Slavic peoples of Southeast Europe, including Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs, and Slovenes."}, "https://codexery.com/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-worl/e/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-world/basil-i/": {"t": "Basil I", "s": "Byzantine emperor who founded the Macedonian dynasty and reformed law.", "i": "https://codexery.com/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-worl/img/emperors-of-the-byzantine-and-roman-world/basil-i.webp", "c": "Unknown, 13th-century author · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-cultural-concepts/e/historical-and-cultural-concepts/aristocracy/": {"t": "Aristocracy", "s": "Rule by a small, privileged class of aristocrats.", "i": "https://codexery.com/historical-cultural-concepts/img/historical-and-cultural-concepts/aristocracy.webp", "c": "DzHaruna · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/e/world-heritage-sites-in-italy/siena/": {"t": "Siena", "s": "Medieval Tuscan city with a historic centre and the Palio."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/dante-alighieri/": {"t": "Dante Alighieri", "s": "Italian poet who wrote the Divine Comedy in the vernacular."}, "https://codexery.com/classic-poetry-and-epics/e/classic-poetry-and-epics/the-divine-comedy/": {"t": "The Divine Comedy", "s": "Three-part poem on the soul's journey through the afterlife."}}