The Art of War

The Art of War is a Chinese military text from the late Spring and Autumn period, around the 5th century BC. It is credited to the strategist Sun Tzu, meaning "Master Sun," and consists of 13 chapters. Each chapter covers a distinct aspect of warfare, finance, and how these relate to military strategy and tactics. For nearly 1,500 years, it was the primary text in a collection later formalized as the Seven Military Classics by Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1080. The book has had a lasting impact on strategic thinking, influencing military theory in both East Asia and the West.

The treatise provides a detailed examination of 5th-century BC Chinese military practices, including weapons, environmental factors, financial logistics, strategy, morale, rank, and discipline. Sun Tzu presents war as a costly and destructive last resort, arguing that prolonged conflict harms a state more than any enemy. He advocates for using diplomacy and economic principles to keep wars brief, contained, and cheap by limiting financial exposure. The text also emphasizes the role of intelligence operatives and espionage in both conducting war and preventing it. Sun Tzu is regarded as one of history's finest military analysts, and his teachings have become a foundation for advanced military training worldwide.

The first European translation was a French version by Jesuit priest Jean Joseph Marie Amiot in 1772. The first annotated English translation came from British scholar Lionel Giles in 1910. Figures such as Mao Zedong, Takeda Shingen, Võ Nguyên Giáp, Douglas MacArthur, and Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. have all cited the book as an inspiration.

The text is traditionally attributed to Sun Tzu, a military general said to have lived in the 6th century BC, though the earliest parts likely date to at least 100 years later. Sima Qian's *Shiji* records a tradition that a military text was written by Sun Wu from the state of Qi, read by King Helü of Wu. This text was traditionally identified with *The Art of War*. The conventional view holds that Sun Wu was a theorist from the end of the Spring and Autumn period who fled to Wu, impressed the king by training court women in discipline, and made Wu’s army powerful enough to challenge Chu. This view remains common in China. The earliest known commentary was authored by Kai Wen in the early 3rd century AD, who edited the text and removed passages, though the extent of his changes is unclear.

Around the 12th century, Chinese scholars began questioning Sun Tzu’s existence, noting that the *Zuo Zhuan* does not mention him. The name "Sun Wu" appears in no text before the *Records of the Grand Historian*. Some scholars suspect it is a descriptive name meaning "the fugitive warrior." In the early 20th century, Liang Qichao theorized the text was written in the 4th century BC by Sun Tzu’s descendant Sun Bin. Samuel B. Griffith suggested Sun Wu may not have written the work. In 1972, the Yinqueshan Han slips were discovered in two Han dynasty tombs sealed between 134 and 118 BC. They contained two texts: one attributed to Sun Tzu, matching the received version, and another by Sun Bin that expands on it. The two may represent a single intellectual tradition. The discovery clarified that historical confusion arose from two texts both called "Master Sun's Art of War." The earlier text contains about one-third of the modern work’s chapters, with close textual matches. It is now generally accepted that *The Art of War* was completed between 500 and 430 BC.

The book is divided into 13 chapters, referred to as *piān*, and the collection is considered one *zhuàn*. Across East Asia, it was part of the syllabus for military service examinations. During the Sengoku period, it also saw significant use.