Homer

Homer was an ancient Greek poet, traditionally named as the creator of the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey*, two epic poems that form the bedrock of ancient Greek literature. In his own time, he was deeply respected, and he remains one of history's most influential writers. However, scholars today debate whether Homer actually existed—a puzzle known as the "Homeric Question"—and many believe the two epics were written by different people.

The *Iliad* focuses on a conflict between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles in the final year of the Trojan War. The *Odyssey* follows the ten-year journey of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, as he tries to return home after Troy falls. Both epics explore human struggle, especially the *Odyssey*, where Odysseus endures punishment from the gods. The poems are written in Homeric Greek, a literary language blending Ionic and Aeolic dialect features from various centuries, with Eastern Ionic being the strongest influence. Most researchers think the poems were originally passed down orally. Despite their serious and tragic themes, they also include moments of comedy and laughter.

These epics shaped ancient Greek culture and education, promoting ideals like heroism, glory, and honor. Plato said Homer "has educated Greece." In Dante's *Divine Comedy*, Virgil calls Homer "Poet sovereign," the king of all poets. Alexander Pope, in his translation of the *Iliad*, notes that Homer has always been seen as the "greatest of poets." From ancient times to today, the Homeric epics have inspired countless works in literature, music, art, and film.

The questions of who composed the *Iliad* and *Odyssey*, when, where, and under what circumstances remain active areas of research. Scholars think the poems were written around the late eighth or early seventh century BC. Many stories about Homer's life circulated in antiquity, the most common being that he was a blind bard from Ionia—a region on the central western coast of Anatolia (modern Turkey), including the Greek islands of Chios and Samos. Modern scholars consider these accounts legendary, not historically reliable.

**Biography, identity, and biographical traditions**

Homer's identity is unknown, and scholars generally view the ancient idea of a single author for both epics as fictional. In antiquity, biographical details became increasingly mythologized because of his anonymity, and people believed he lived after the Trojan War. Today, scholars study Homer's life alongside the Homeric Question—the ongoing debate about authorship and the poems' origins, composition, and transmission. The two best-known ancient biographies are the *Life of Homer* by Pseudo-Herodotus and the *Contest of Homer and Hesiod*.

The earliest indirect references to Homer appear in the seventh century BC, in works by Archilochus, Alcman, Tyrtaeus, and Callinus. Most ancient biographies describe Homer as blind. Others, like the Byzantine encyclopedia *Suda*, claim he was descended from a Muse, Apollo, Orpheus, Thamyris, Telemachus, or Musaeus. A tradition from the time of Emperor Hadrian says Epicaste (daughter of Nestor) and Telemachus (son of Odysseus) were his parents. The poet Pindar is said to have stated Homer came from Chios and Smyrna, both mentioned by other fifth-century writers. Other traditions imagined Homer as a rhapsode who performed at religious festivals, a wandering bard, a composer of other works (the "Homerica"), or someone who failed to solve a riddle set by fishermen. According to the Greek historian Ephorus, Homer studied poetry with the bard Phemius and was born in Cyme. Philochorus thought his birthplace was Argos; later writers suggested Pylos or Athens. No single account of his origin became standard, but most place his death on the island of Ios.

Two epigrams in the *Greek Anthology* by Alcaeus of Messene commemorate Homer's death and burial on Ios, highlighting both his immortal fame and the honor the small island receives as his tomb.

**Works attributed to Homer**

Today, only the *Iliad* and *Odyssey* are linked to the name "Homer." In antiquity, many other works were sometimes credited to him, including the *Homeric Hymns*, the *Contest of Homer and Hesiod*, several epigrams, the *Little Iliad*, the *Nostoi*, the *Thebaid*, the *Cypria*, the *Epigoni*, the comic mini-epic *Batrachomyomachia* ("The Frog–Mouse War"), the *Margites*, the *Capture of Oechalia*, and the *Phocais*. These claims are not considered authentic today and were not universally accepted in the ancient world. Like the many legends about Homer's life, they mainly show how central Homer was to ancient Greek culture.

**History of Homeric scholarship**

The study of Homer is one of the oldest scholarly topics, dating back to antiquity, though its goals have changed over time. The earliest preserved comments on Homer concern his treatment of the gods, which hostile critics like the poet Xenophanes of Colophon denounced as immoral. The allegorist Theagenes of Rhegium is said to have defended Homer by interpreting his works allegorically.