Old Kingdom of Egypt

The Old Kingdom of ancient Egypt lasted from roughly 2700 to 2200 BC. Often called the “Age of the Pyramids,” this era saw the Fourth Dynasty kings perfect pyramid construction, including Sneferu, who built three pyramids, and Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure, who ordered the famous Giza pyramids. It was Egypt’s first sustained peak of civilization, the first of three “Kingdom” periods (followed by the Middle and New Kingdoms) that mark high points in the lower Nile Valley.

The term “Old Kingdom” was coined in 1845 by German Egyptologist Baron von Bunsen, and its definition evolved over the 19th and 20th centuries. The last king of the Early Dynastic Period was related to the first two Old Kingdom kings, and the royal residence remained at Memphis (Ineb-Hedj). The main reason for separating the periods is a revolutionary change in architecture and its effects on society and the economy from large-scale building projects.

The Old Kingdom is usually considered the Third through Sixth Dynasties (2686–2181 BC). Information from the Fourth to Sixth Dynasties is scarce, so history is largely “written in stone”—through monuments and inscriptions. It was a time of internal security and prosperity, followed by the First Intermediate Period, a time of disunity and cultural decline starting with the Seventh Dynasty. Some Egyptologists include the Seventh and Eighth Dynasties as a continuation of the Old Kingdom, with administration centered at Memphis. The king (not called pharaoh until the New Kingdom) was a living god with absolute rule, able to demand subjects’ services and wealth.

Under King Djoser, first king of the Third Dynasty, a new building era began at Saqqara. His vizier, Imhotep, is credited with developing stone construction and the step pyramid form. The Old Kingdom is best known for its many pyramids built as royal tombs.

**History**

**Rise of the Old Kingdom** Djoser (sometime between 2691 and 2625 BC) of the Third Dynasty ordered the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, Memphis’s necropolis. His vizier Imhotep was key. Formerly independent Egyptian states became nomes under the king, with former rulers becoming governors or tax collectors. Egyptians believed the king was the incarnation of Horus, linking human and spiritual worlds. They thought the universe worked in cycles, and the pharaoh ensured their stability. They saw themselves as a chosen people.

**Height of the Old Kingdom** The Old Kingdom peaked under the Fourth Dynasty (2613–2494 BC). King Sneferu, its first king, held territory from Libya to the Sinai to Nubia, founding a settlement at Buhen that lasted 200 years. After Djoser, he was the next great pyramid builder, commissioning three pyramids: the Meidum Pyramid (first with an above-ground burial chamber, abandoned after its casing fell), the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur, and the Red Pyramid at North Dahshur. He used more stone than any other pharaoh.

Sneferu’s son Khufu (2589–2566 BC) built the Great Pyramid of Giza, achieving the fully developed pyramid style. After Khufu’s death, his sons Djedefre (2566–2558 BC) and Khafre (2558–2532 BC) may have quarreled. Khafre built the second Giza pyramid and, traditionally, the Great Sphinx. Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev has proposed the Sphinx was commissioned by Djedefre as a monument to Khufu; others suggest Khafre or Khufu himself. Military expeditions went to Canaan and Nubia, with Egyptian influence reaching into modern Sudan. Later Fourth Dynasty kings included Menkaure (2532–2504 BC), who built the smallest of the three great Giza pyramids; Shepseskaf (2504–2498 BC); and possibly Djedefptah (2498–2496 BC).

**Fifth Dynasty** The Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 BC) began with Userkaf (2494–2487 BC) and saw the growing importance of the sun god Ra’s cult. Less effort went into pyramids and more into sun temples at Abusir. Userkaf’s son Sahure (2487–2475 BC) led an expedition to Punt. His son Neferirkare Kakai (2475–2455 BC) introduced the prenomen in the royal titulary. He was followed by two short-lived kings: his son Neferefre (2455–2453 BC) and Shepseskare, of uncertain parentage.