Stalking

Stalking refers to unwanted or repeated surveillance or contact directed at a person by an individual or group. It overlaps with harassment and intimidation and can involve physically following someone or monitoring them. The meaning of the term varies across psychiatry, psychology, and legal systems, where it may define a specific crime.

Though related, stalking differs from harassment because it requires repeated behaviors and contact. Some researchers argue that the moral wrong of stalking is not clearly defined, suggesting it is an attempt to force a personal connection or relationship onto a victim. According to a U.S. National Center for Victims of Crime report, nearly any unwanted contact that directly or indirectly communicates a threat or leaves the victim in fear can be considered stalking, though the rights of victims depend on jurisdiction.

The term "stalking" was first used in a 1995 research paper to describe the common pattern of men aggressively pursuing female former partners after a breakup. Before that, terms like "female harassment," "obsessive following," or "psychological rape" were more common. Defining stalking precisely is difficult, partly because accepted courtship behaviors and stalking behaviors can overlap, requiring context to determine whether an action qualifies. The word "stalker" has been used since the 16th century for a prowler or poacher, but in the 20th century, the media—especially U.S. tabloids—began using it to describe obsessed strangers harassing celebrities. Over time, the term expanded to include former partners. Pathé and Mullen describe stalking as a set of behaviors where someone repeatedly inflicts unwanted intrusions and communications on another. It is willful and repeated following, watching, or harassing, and unlike most crimes, it involves a series of actions over time.

Although stalking is illegal in most places, some actions that contribute to it—like gathering information, calling, texting, sending gifts, emailing, or instant messaging—may be legal on their own. They become illegal when they meet the legal definition of harassment. For example, a single text is usually legal, but frequent texts to an unwilling recipient are not. In the UK, an incident only needs to happen twice if the harasser should know their behavior is unacceptable, such as two phone calls to a stranger or following the victim then phoning them. Cultural norms also shape how stalking is defined. Many men and women admit to stalking-like behaviors after a breakup but stop over time, suggesting that low-level unwanted pursuit for a short period, especially after a breakup, may be considered normal in U.S. heterosexual dating culture.

People characterized as stalkers may mistakenly believe another person loves them (erotomania) or needs rescuing. Stalking can involve a series of actions that are individually legal, like phone calls, gifts, or emails. Stalkers may use overt or covert intimidation, threats, and violence to frighten victims, including vandalism, property damage, or physical attacks meant to scare. Sexual assaults are less common. Intimate-partner stalkers are the most dangerous type. In the UK, most stalkers are former partners, and evidence shows that stalking driven by mental illness—often highlighted in the media—accounts for only a minority of cases. A UK Home Office study on the Protection from Harassment Act found it is mostly used for domestic and neighbor disputes, not for stalking as portrayed in the media, since only a small number of cases involved such behavior.

Some scholars propose that stalkers have an insecure attachment style, which may contribute to borderline and narcissistic personality traits observed in those who end up in the criminal justice system. These individuals rely on positive approval from others to maintain their self-concept; without it, they may develop maladaptive coping strategies like stalking. Significant data supports this theory. Another theory is that stalking behaviors are learned socially—people who stalk may know others who stalk or approve of such behavior. Antisocial peers and attitudes are linked to broader criminal offending. A study of U.S. college students found that social learning factors were associated with self-reported stalking. Other theories include evolutionary perspectives.