Tantra

Tantra is an esoteric yogic tradition that emerged in the Indian subcontinent around the middle of the first millennium CE. It first appeared within Shaivism and Shaktism, and later spread into Buddhism and Vaishnavism. The tradition features elaborate cosmologies that regard the body as sacred, often symbolizing the union of Shiva and Shakti. Its aims include achieving siddhi (supernatural powers), bhoga (pleasure), and the rising of kundalini, and it also deals with states of possession (āveśa) and exorcism.

In Indian traditions, the word *tantra* also refers to a body of texts that outline systems, methods, instruments, techniques, and practices. These texts focus on sādhanā, which includes dīkṣā (initiation), rituals, and yoga. A central element of tantric traditions is the use of mantras, which is why they are often called Mantramārga ("Path of Mantra") in Hinduism and Mantrayāna ("Mantra Vehicle") in Mahayana Buddhism.

Within Buddhism, Vajrayana traditions are built on tantric ideas and practices derived from Indian Buddhist Tantras. These include Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Japanese Shingon Buddhism, and Nepalese Newar Buddhism. Although Southern Esoteric Buddhism does not directly cite the tantras, its practices and concepts run parallel to them.

Tantric Hindu and Buddhist traditions have also influenced other Eastern religions, such as Jainism, the Tibetan Bön tradition, Taoism, and Japanese Shintō. While Western perceptions often reduce Tantra to sex, scholars point out that sexual practices within tantric traditions are uncommon, strictly limited to initiated adepts, and function as a means of spiritual transcendence rather than an end in themselves.

**Etymology**

The Sanskrit word *tantra* literally means "loom, warp, weave." According to Padoux, the verbal root *tan* means "to extend," "to spread," "to spin out," "weave," "display," "put forth," and "compose." By extension, it can also mean "system," "doctrine," or "work." The connotation of *tantra* as an esoteric practice or religious ritualism is a colonial-era European invention. Ron Barrett notes that the term is based on the metaphor of weaving, where the Sanskrit root *tan* refers to the warping of threads on a loom, implying an "interweaving of traditions and teachings as threads" into a text, technique, or practice.

The word appears in the hymns of the Rigveda (e.g., 10.71) with the meaning "warp (weaving)." It is also found in other Vedic-era texts, such as section 10.7.42 of the Atharvaveda and many Brahmanas. In these and post-Vedic texts, the contextual meaning of *tantra* is "principal or essential part, main point, model, framework, feature." In the Smritis and epics of Hinduism (and Jainism), the term means "doctrine, rule, theory, method, technique, or chapter," and appears both as a separate word and as a common suffix—for example, *atma-tantra* meaning "doctrine or theory of Atman (Self)."

After about 500 BCE, in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, "Tantra" became a bibliographic category, similar to the word *Sutra* (which means "sewing together," mirroring the "weaving together" metaphor of *Tantra*). Some Buddhist texts are referred to interchangeably as tantra or sutra; for instance, the *Vairocabhisambodhi-tantra* is also called the *Vairocabhisambodhi-sutra*. The various contextual meanings of *Tantra* vary with the Indian text.

**Definition**

*Ancient and medieval era*

The 5th-century BCE scholar Pāṇini, in his Sanskrit grammar Sutra 1.4.54–55, cryptically explains *tantra* using the example of *Sva-tantra* (Sanskrit: स्वतन्त्र), which he defines as "independent" or a person who is his own "warp, cloth, weaver, promoter, karta (actor)." Patanjali, in his *Mahābhāṣya*, quotes and accepts Panini's definition, then elaborates that its metaphorical meaning of "warp (weaving), extended cloth" applies to many contexts. Patanjali states that *tantra* means "principal, main." He uses the same example of *svatantra* as a compound of *sva* (self) and *tantra*, explaining that *svatantra* means "one who is self-dependent, one who is his own master, the principal thing for whom is himself." Patanjali also offers a semantic definition: *tantra* refers to structural rules, standard procedures, or a centralized guide or knowledge in any field that applies to many elements.

The ancient Mimamsa school of Hinduism uses the term *tantra* extensively, with scholars offering various definitions. For example: "When an action or a thing, once complete, becomes beneficial in several matters to one person, or to many people, that is known as Tantra. For example, a lamp placed amidst many priests. In contrast, that which benefits by its repetition is called Āvāpa, such as massaging with oil."

Medieval texts present their own definitions. The *Kāmikā-tantra*, for instance, explains: "Because it elaborates (tan) copious and profound matters, especially relating to the principles of reality (tattva) and sacred mantras, and because it provides liberation (tra), it is called a tantra."

*Modern era*

Many definitions of Tantra have been proposed, and no single one is universally accepted. Tantric traditions have been studied mostly from textual and historical perspectives. Anthropological work on living Tantric tradition is scarce, and ethnography has rarely engaged with the study of Tantra. This is arguably a result of the modern construction of Tantrism as occult, esoteric, and secret. Some scholars have tried to demystify the myth of secrecy in contemporary Tantric traditions, suggesting new methodological avenues to overcome the ethical and epistemological problems in studying living Tantric traditions. André Padoux, in his review of Tantra definitions, offers further discussion.