{"/e/astrophotography/telescope/": {"t": "Telescope", "s": "A device for observing distant objects via electromagnetic radiation.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astrophotography/img/astrophotography/telescope.webp", "c": "Pelligton · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "/e/astrophotography/hale-telescope/": {"t": "Hale Telescope", "s": "A 200-inch reflecting telescope at Palomar Observatory, completed in 1949."}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/nordic-optical-telescope/": {"t": "Nordic Optical Telescope", "s": "A 2.56-metre telescope in the Canary Islands, active since 1988."}, "https://codexery.com/climate/e/climate/atmosphere-of-earth/": {"t": "Atmosphere of Earth", "s": "The gaseous envelope surrounding Earth, essential for life and climate."}, "https://codexery.com/science-measurement/e/science-and-measurement/polarizer/": {"t": "Polarizer", "s": "An optical filter that transmits light of a specific polarization and blocks others.", "i": "https://codexery.com/science-measurement/img/science-and-measurement/polarizer.webp", "c": "Reinraum · Public domain"}, "/e/astrophotography/radio-telescope/": {"t": "Radio telescope", "s": "A specialized antenna and receiver for detecting cosmic radio waves.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astrophotography/img/astrophotography/radio-telescope.webp", "c": "Photograph by Mike Peel ( www.mikepeel.net ). · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/five-hundred-meter-aperture-spherical-telescope/": {"t": "Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope", "s": "World's largest single-dish radio telescope, located in Guizhou, China."}, "/e/astrophotography/aperture-synthesis/": {"t": "Aperture synthesis", "s": "A technique combining telescope signals to achieve high angular resolution."}, "/e/astrophotography/association-astronomy/": {"t": "Association (astronomy)", "s": "Co-added HST exposures cleaned of cosmic rays."}, "/e/astrophotography/astronomical-image-processing-system/": {"t": "Astronomical Image Processing System", "s": "Radio interferometry data-reduction package, still active after decades."}, "/e/astrophotography/radio-astronomy/": {"t": "Radio astronomy", "s": "Passive observation of celestial objects using radio waves.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astrophotography/img/astrophotography/radio-astronomy.webp", "c": "Maksym Kozlenko · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/atacama-large-millimeter-array/": {"t": "Atacama Large Millimeter Array", "s": "66-antenna interferometer observing millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/australian-square-kilometre-array-pathfinder/": {"t": "Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder", "s": "A radio telescope array using phased-array feed technology for wide-field surveys."}, "https://codexery.com/observatories-of-europe/e/observatories-of-europe/jodrell-bank-observatory/": {"t": "Jodrell Bank Observatory", "s": "Radio astronomy pioneer and UNESCO World Heritage Site."}, "https://codexery.com/english-folklore/e/english-folklore/merlin/": {"t": "Merlin", "s": "Mythical prophet and magician in Arthurian legend."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/low-frequency-array/": {"t": "Low-Frequency Array", "s": "A European low-frequency radio interferometer with software-based beamforming."}, "https://codexery.com/optics-and-photonics/e/optics-and-photonics/ray-optics/": {"t": "Ray (optics)", "s": "Geometrical model of light propagation used in optical analysis.", "i": "https://codexery.com/optics-and-photonics/img/optics-and-photonics/ray-optics.webp", "c": "C.Sarabalis · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/atmosphere/e/atmosphere/atmosphere/": {"t": "Atmosphere", "s": "A layer of gases enveloping an astronomical object, retained by gravity."}, "https://codexery.com/crystallography/e/crystallography/absorption-electromagnetic-radiation/": {"t": "Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)", "s": "Matter takes up photon energy, transforming it into internal energy.", "i": "https://codexery.com/crystallography/img/crystallography/absorption-electromagnetic-radiation.webp", "c": "Own work · CC0"}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy/e/astronomy/extinction-astronomy/": {"t": "Extinction (astronomy)", "s": "Extinction dims and reddens starlight via interstellar dust and gas."}, "https://codexery.com/physical-geography-elevation/e/physical-geography-and-elevation/elevation/": {"t": "Elevation", "s": "Height of Earth's surface above a reference geoid."}, "https://codexery.com/atmospheric-optical-phenomena/e/atmospheric-optical-phenomena/atmospheric-refraction/": {"t": "Atmospheric refraction", "s": "Atmospheric refraction bends light, altering apparent positions of celestial and terrestrial objects."}, "https://codexery.com/mechanics-and-fluid-dynamics/e/mechanics-and-fluid-dynamics/homogeneity-physics/": {"t": "Homogeneity (physics)", "s": "Uniformity of properties at every point in a system."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-propagation/e/radio-propagation/chapman-function/": {"t": "Chapman function", "s": "Chapman function models slant-path atmospheric integration on a spherical Earth.", "i": "https://codexery.com/radio-propagation/img/radio-propagation/chapman-function.webp", "c": "Henry Cadwalader Chapman (1845–1909) · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/optics-and-photonics/e/optics-and-photonics/rayleigh-scattering/": {"t": "Rayleigh scattering", "s": "Rayleigh scattering explains why the sky is blue.", "i": "https://codexery.com/optics-and-photonics/img/optics-and-photonics/rayleigh-scattering.webp", "c": "Hibiscus Rosa Sinensis · CC BY 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/radio-propagation/e/radio-propagation/mie-scattering/": {"t": "Mie scattering", "s": "Scattering of light by particles comparable to the wavelength."}, "https://codexery.com/chemical-substances-and-materials/e/chemical-substances-and-materials/ozone/": {"t": "Ozone", "s": "A pale-blue gas that protects and pollutes the atmosphere.", "i": "https://codexery.com/chemical-substances-and-materials/img/chemical-substances-and-materials/ozone.webp", "c": "Mdemyer · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-waves/e/electromagnetism-and-waves/refractive-index/": {"t": "Refractive index", "s": "Ratio of light speed in vacuum to that in a medium."}, "https://codexery.com/films-about-consciousness-transfer/e/films-about-consciousness-transfer/source-code/": {"t": "Source Code", "s": "A soldier enters an eight-minute simulation to find a bomber."}, "/e/astrophotography/visible-light-astronomy/": {"t": "Visible-light astronomy", "s": "The oldest and most accessible form of astronomy, using visible light."}, "https://codexery.com/optics-and-photonics/e/optics-and-photonics/optical-aberration/": {"t": "Optical aberration", "s": "Deviation from ideal image formation in optical systems."}, "https://codexery.com/classical-and-continuum-mechanics/e/classical-and-continuum-mechanics/turbulence/": {"t": "Turbulence", "s": "Chaotic fluid motion with vortices, mixing, and unresolved physics."}, "/e/astrophotography/astronomical-seeing/": {"t": "Astronomical seeing", "s": "Atmospheric turbulence blurs astronomical images, limiting telescope resolution."}, "/e/astrophotography/speckle-imaging/": {"t": "Speckle imaging", "s": "High-resolution technique using short exposures to freeze atmospheric turbulence."}, "https://codexery.com/exoplanets/e/exoplanets/the-james-webb-space-telescope/": {"t": "The James Webb Space Telescope", "s": "The largest space telescope, observing the infrared universe from beyond Earth's orbit."}, "https://codexery.com/space-missions/e/space-missions/the-hubble-space-telescope/": {"t": "The Hubble Space Telescope", "s": "A versatile space telescope observing ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared light."}, "https://codexery.com/space-program-of-canada/e/space-program-of-canada/fine-guidance-sensor-and-near-infrared-imager-and-slitless-spectrograph/": {"t": "Fine Guidance Sensor and Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph", "s": "Canadian-built instrument combining guidance and infrared science on JWST."}, "/e/astrophotography/aperture-masking-interferometry/": {"t": "Aperture masking interferometry", "s": "A speckle interferometry technique achieving diffraction-limited imaging via aperture masks."}, "/e/astrophotography/very-long-baseline-interferometry/": {"t": "Very-long-baseline interferometry", "s": "VLBI combines radio telescopes to emulate a giant telescope."}, "/e/astrophotography/submillimetre-astronomy/": {"t": "Submillimetre astronomy", "s": "Submillimetre astronomy traces cold gas and dust across the universe.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astrophotography/img/astrophotography/submillimetre-astronomy.webp", "c": "ESO/ P. Horálek · CC BY 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism/e/electromagnetism/amplitude/": {"t": "Amplitude", "s": "Amplitude measures wave magnitude across multiple definitions."}, "https://codexery.com/combinatorics/e/combinatorics/binomial-coefficient/": {"t": "Binomial coefficient", "s": "Positive integers that appear as coefficients in the binomial theorem.", "i": "https://codexery.com/combinatorics/img/combinatorics/binomial-coefficient.webp", "c": "Cmglee · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/very-large-array/": {"t": "Very Large Array", "s": "A versatile interferometer array for centimeter-wavelength radio astronomy."}, "https://codexery.com/cities/e/coastal/sydney/": {"t": "Sydney", "s": "The Harbour City, capital of New South Wales and Australia's largest city."}, "https://codexery.com/social-issues/e/social-issues/nobel-prize/": {"t": "Nobel Prize", "s": "Prestigious awards for the greatest benefit to humankind."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/deep-synoptic-array/": {"t": "Deep Synoptic Array", "s": "A large radio array for all-sky transient surveys."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-propagation/e/radio-propagation/doppler-effect/": {"t": "Doppler effect", "s": "Frequency shift due to relative motion between source and observer."}, "https://codexery.com/telescope-types/e/telescope-types/balloon-borne-telescope/": {"t": "Balloon-borne telescope", "s": "Sub-orbital telescopes lifted by stratospheric balloons for cost-effective astronomy."}, "https://codexery.com/spiral-galaxies/e/spiral-galaxies/milky-way/": {"t": "Milky Way", "s": "The barred spiral galaxy containing the Solar System."}, "https://codexery.com/stars-of-hydra/e/stars-of-hydra/tw-hydrae/": {"t": "TW Hydrae", "s": "Young T Tauri star with a face-on protoplanetary disk."}, "/e/astrophotography/astrograph/": {"t": "Astrograph", "s": "A telescope designed exclusively for astrophotography and sky surveys."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-catalogues/e/astronomical-catalogues/star-catalogue/": {"t": "Star catalogue", "s": "Mapping the heavens: from clay tablets to billions of stars.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomical-catalogues/img/astronomical-catalogues/star-catalogue.webp", "c": "CielProfond · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-catalogues/e/astronomical-catalogues/gaia-catalogues/": {"t": "Gaia catalogues", "s": "Star catalogues from the Gaia space telescope", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomical-catalogues/img/astronomical-catalogues/gaia-catalogues.webp", "c": "© ESA/Gaia/DPAC; · CC BY-SA 3.0 igo"}, "/e/astrophotography/aips/": {"t": "AIPS++", "s": "Software package reborn as CASA for radio telescopes."}, "https://codexery.com/finnish-inventions/e/finnish-inventions/linux/": {"t": "Linux", "s": "Free and open-source Unix-like operating system family."}, "https://codexery.com/sacra-music-artists/e/sacra-music-artists/halca/": {"t": "Halca", "s": "Japanese singer known for anime closing themes."}, "https://codexery.com/python/e/python/python-programming-language/": {"t": "Python (programming language)", "s": "High-level, general-purpose language emphasizing readability and simplicity."}, "https://codexery.com/graphics-hardware/e/graphics-hardware/tektronix-4010/": {"t": "Tektronix 4010", "s": "Storage-tube terminals that eliminated costly framebuffer memory."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-concepts-and-techniques/e/astronomical-concepts-and-techniques/twinkling/": {"t": "Twinkling", "s": "Twinkling is atmospheric scintillation affecting distant light sources."}, "https://codexery.com/science-measurement/e/science-and-measurement/optical-telescope/": {"t": "Optical telescope", "s": "Instrument that gathers visible light to magnify distant objects.", "i": "https://codexery.com/science-measurement/img/science-and-measurement/optical-telescope.webp", "c": "NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from Greenbelt, MD, USA · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/mars/e/mars/martian-canals/": {"t": "Martian canals", "s": "A 19th-century optical illusion once thought to be alien canals."}, "/e/astrophotography/charge-coupled-device/": {"t": "Charge-coupled device", "s": "An integrated circuit that converts light into electric charge for imaging."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-waves/e/electromagnetism-and-waves/infrared/": {"t": "Infrared", "s": "Invisible electromagnetic radiation between visible light and microwaves."}, "https://codexery.com/scientists-and-mathematicians/e/scientists-and-mathematicians/andrey-kolmogorov/": {"t": "Andrey Kolmogorov", "s": "Soviet mathematician who laid the axiomatic foundations of probability theory and made fundamental contributions across mathematics."}, "https://codexery.com/space-telescopes/e/space-telescopes/space-telescope/": {"t": "Space telescope", "s": "Telescopes in space avoiding atmospheric interference for astronomical observation."}, "/e/astrophotography/spectro-polarimetric-high-contrast-exoplanet-research/": {"t": "Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research", "s": "Direct imaging facility for exoplanets at the Very Large Telescope.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astrophotography/img/astrophotography/spectro-polarimetric-high-contrast-exoplanet-research.webp", "c": "SPHERE Project/ESO/J.-L. Beuzit and J.-F. Sauvage. · CC BY 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-catalogues/e/astronomical-catalogues/celestial-cartography/": {"t": "Celestial cartography", "s": "Mapping the celestial sphere from antiquity to modern databases.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomical-catalogues/img/astronomical-catalogues/celestial-cartography.webp", "c": "Domenico de Rossi · Public domain"}, "/e/astrophotography/astrophotography/": {"t": "Astrophotography", "s": "Astrophotography records celestial objects using long exposures and specialized equipment."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism/e/electromagnetism/electromagnetic-spectrum/": {"t": "Electromagnetic spectrum", "s": "The full range of electromagnetic radiation, from radio to gamma rays."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-catalogues/e/astronomical-catalogues/astronomical-catalogue/": {"t": "Astronomical catalogue", "s": "Lists of astronomical objects grouped by type, origin, or discovery method."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-concepts-and-techniques/e/astronomical-concepts-and-techniques/time-domain-astronomy/": {"t": "Time-domain astronomy", "s": "Study of how astronomical objects change with time."}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/asteroid-terrestrial-impact-last-alert-system/": {"t": "Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System", "s": "Robotic survey providing days to weeks of warning for smaller asteroid impacts."}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/flyeye/": {"t": "Flyeye", "s": "ESA's fly-eye telescope for detecting near-Earth objects before impact."}, "https://codexery.com/manufacturing-and-materials/e/manufacturing-and-materials/photography/": {"t": "Photography", "s": "Drawing with light: capturing images through chemical or electronic means."}, "https://codexery.com/named-stars/e/named-stars/sun/": {"t": "Sun", "s": "The Sun is the central star of the Solar System."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism/e/electromagnetism/photon/": {"t": "Photon", "s": "Quantum of light and force carrier for electromagnetism."}, "https://codexery.com/camera-image-sensors/e/camera-image-sensors/image-sensor/": {"t": "Image sensor", "s": "Sensor that converts light into electrical signals for imaging."}, "https://codexery.com/amateur-astronomy/e/amateur-astronomy/amateur-astronomy/": {"t": "Amateur astronomy", "s": "Amateur astronomers observe celestial objects for passion, education, and citizen science."}, "https://codexery.com/microscope-components/e/microscope-components/objective-optics/": {"t": "Objective (optics)", "s": "An objective gathers and focuses light to form a real image."}, "/e/astrophotography/equatorial-mount/": {"t": "Equatorial mount", "s": "A mount that tracks celestial objects by aligning with Earth's rotation."}, "/e/astrophotography/altazimuth-mount/": {"t": "Altazimuth mount", "s": "A simple two-axis mount for rotating instruments about vertical and horizontal axes."}, "https://codexery.com/stars-and-stellar-objects/e/stars-and-stellar-objects/comet/": {"t": "Comet", "s": "Icy wanderers that bloom when near the Sun."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-stellar-astronomy/e/planets-and-stellar-astronomy/stellar-classification/": {"t": "Stellar classification", "s": "System for classifying stars by spectral and luminosity characteristics."}, "https://codexery.com/separation-and-purification-techniques/e/separation-and-purification-techniques/spectroscopy/": {"t": "Spectroscopy", "s": "Spectroscopy measures and interprets electromagnetic spectra interacting with matter."}, "https://codexery.com/stars-of-lyra/e/stars-of-lyra/vega/": {"t": "Vega", "s": "Bright northern star, former pole star, surrounded by a dust disk."}, "https://codexery.com/messier-objects/e/messier-objects/orion-nebula/": {"t": "Orion Nebula", "s": "The closest massive star-forming region to Earth."}, "https://codexery.com/space-missions/e/space-missions/the-international-space-station/": {"t": "The International Space Station", "s": "The International Space Station (ISS) is a modular spacecraft in low Earth orbit, assembled and operated by five partner agencies: NASA, Roscosmos, ESA, JAXA, a"}, "https://codexery.com/expeditions-to-the-international-space/e/expeditions-to-the-international-space-station/expedition-6/": {"t": "Expedition 6", "s": "The last three-man crew until 2006, extended by the Columbia disaster."}, "https://codexery.com/electric-motors/e/electric-motors/electric-motor/": {"t": "Electric motor", "s": "Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy via magnetic fields."}, "https://codexery.com/electric-motors/e/electric-motors/stepper-motor/": {"t": "Stepper motor", "s": "A brushless DC motor that rotates in discrete angular steps.", "i": "https://codexery.com/electric-motors/img/electric-motors/stepper-motor.webp", "c": "Kushagra Keshari · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "/e/astrophotography/star-trail/": {"t": "Star trail", "s": "Long-exposure photos capturing stars as streaks due to Earth's rotation.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astrophotography/img/astrophotography/star-trail.webp", "c": "Zexsen Xie · CC BY 2.0"}, "https://codexery.com/stars-and-stellar-objects/e/stars-and-stellar-objects/asteroid/": {"t": "Asteroid", "s": "Rocky, metallic, or icy minor planets orbiting the Sun, mostly in the main belt between Mars and Jupiter."}, "https://codexery.com/novels-by-robert-a-heinlein/e/novels-by-robert-a-heinlein/variable-star/": {"t": "Variable Star", "s": "A young musician flees romance aboard a starship colony mission."}, "https://codexery.com/binary-and-multiple-stars/e/binary-and-multiple-stars/astrometric-binary/": {"t": "Astrometric binary", "s": "Some stars appear to circle an invisible point."}, "https://codexery.com/stars-and-stellar-phenomena/e/stars-and-stellar-phenomena/double-star/": {"t": "Double star", "s": "A double star is a pair of stars that appear close together as viewed from Earth, either as a gravitationally bound binary or a chance optical alignment."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-stellar-astronomy/e/planets-and-stellar-astronomy/solar-system/": {"t": "Solar System", "s": "The Sun and all objects gravitationally bound to it.", "i": "https://codexery.com/planets-stellar-astronomy/img/planets-and-stellar-astronomy/solar-system.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Solar System · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/planets-and-dwarf-planets/e/planets-and-dwarf-planets/pluto/": {"t": "Pluto", "s": "Dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, once the ninth planet."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomers-and-cosmologists/e/astronomers-and-cosmologists/clyde-tombaugh/": {"t": "Clyde Tombaugh", "s": "American astronomer who discovered Pluto in 1930.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomers-and-cosmologists/img/astronomers-and-cosmologists/clyde-tombaugh.webp", "c": "Unknown authorUnknown author · via Wikipedia: Clyde Tombaugh · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/sensory-systems/e/sensory-systems/visual-system/": {"t": "Visual system", "s": "Physiological basis of visual perception and light processing."}, "https://codexery.com/discovery-and-invention-controversies/e/discovery-and-invention-controversies/integrated-circuit/": {"t": "Integrated circuit", "s": "Compact electronic circuits on a semiconductor chip revolutionized modern technology."}, "https://codexery.com/dutch-inventions/e/dutch-inventions/electrical-capacitor/": {"t": "Electrical capacitor", "s": "Passive component storing electrical energy via separated conductors."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism/e/electromagnetism/electric-charge/": {"t": "Electric charge", "s": "Electric charge is a quantized property causing electromagnetic force."}, "https://codexery.com/egyptian-inventions/e/egyptian-inventions/mos-capacitor/": {"t": "MOS capacitor", "s": "Core structure enabling the MOSFET and modern integrated circuits."}, "https://codexery.com/canadian-inventors/e/canadian-inventors/willard-boyle/": {"t": "Willard Boyle", "s": "Canadian physicist and Nobel laureate who co-invented the CCD."}, "https://codexery.com/materials-and-states-of-matter/e/materials-and-states-of-matter/semiconductor/": {"t": "Semiconductor", "s": "Materials with conductivity between conductors and insulators."}, "https://codexery.com/government-and-law/e/government-and-law/patent/": {"t": "Patent", "s": "A legal right excluding others from an invention for a limited time."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-manufacturers/e/radio-manufacturers/rca-corporation/": {"t": "RCA Corporation", "s": "Pioneering American electronics and communications firm for over five decades."}, "https://codexery.com/corporations/e/corporations/panasonic/": {"t": "Panasonic", "s": "A Japanese multinational electronics manufacturer with a global brand."}, "https://codexery.com/corporations-conglomerates/e/corporations-and-conglomerates/sony/": {"t": "Sony", "s": "Japanese conglomerate known for electronics and entertainment.", "i": "https://codexery.com/corporations-conglomerates/img/corporations-and-conglomerates/sony.webp", "c": "Akonnchiroll · via Wikipedia: Sony · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/communication-and-media/e/communication-and-media/video-camera/": {"t": "Video camera", "s": "Optical instrument that captures video for live or recorded use."}, "https://codexery.com/japanese-inventors/e/japanese-inventors/nobukazu-teranishi/": {"t": "Nobukazu Teranishi", "s": "Japanese engineer who invented the pinned photodiode for digital cameras."}, "https://codexery.com/aerospace-companies-of-japan/e/aerospace-companies-of-japan/nec/": {"t": "NEC", "s": "Japanese IT and defense conglomerate with a long history."}, "https://codexery.com/periodic-table-elements/e/periodic-table-and-elements/boron/": {"t": "Boron", "s": "A metalloid essential for plants and used in high-strength materials."}, "https://codexery.com/chemical-elements-metals/e/chemical-elements-and-metals/phosphorus/": {"t": "Phosphorus", "s": "The element that glows, burns, and sustains life."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism/e/electromagnetism/dielectric/": {"t": "Dielectric", "s": "An electrical insulator that stores energy through polarisation."}, "https://codexery.com/telescope-types/e/telescope-types/infrared-telescope/": {"t": "Infrared telescope", "s": "Telescope using infrared light to detect celestial bodies."}, "/e/astrophotography/ultraviolet-astronomy/": {"t": "Ultraviolet astronomy", "s": "Observing the hot, energetic universe in ultraviolet light."}, "https://codexery.com/islands-and-archipelagos/e/islands-and-archipelagos/hawaii/": {"t": "Hawaii", "s": "Island state with a tropical climate and diverse heritage."}, "https://codexery.com/meteorology/e/meteorology/hertz/": {"t": "Hertz", "s": "German physicist who proved electromagnetic waves exist."}, "https://codexery.com/airliners/e/airliners/boeing-747/": {"t": "Boeing 747", "s": "The original Jumbo Jet that revolutionized air travel.", "i": "https://codexery.com/airliners/img/airliners/boeing-747.webp", "c": "Luis Miguel Bugallo Sánchez (Lmbuga) · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "/e/astrophotography/eyepiece/": {"t": "Eyepiece", "s": "Eyepieces magnify the image formed by an objective lens or mirror."}, "https://codexery.com/polymers-and-macromolecules/e/polymers-and-macromolecules/poly-methyl-methacrylate/": {"t": "Poly(methyl methacrylate)", "s": "A transparent thermoplastic used as a shatter-resistant glass alternative."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-propagation/e/radio-propagation/antenna-radio/": {"t": "Antenna (radio)", "s": "Interface between radio waves and electric currents."}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/soviet-union/": {"t": "Soviet Union", "s": "The world's flagship communist state and a superpower spanning Eurasia."}, "https://codexery.com/space-program-of-the-united-states/e/space-program-of-the-united-states/voyager-program/": {"t": "Voyager program", "s": "Two probes exploring the outer planets and interstellar space."}, "https://codexery.com/amateur-radio/e/amateur-radio/amateur-radio-satellite/": {"t": "Amateur radio satellite", "s": "Amateur-built satellites enabling free radio communication for licensed operators worldwide."}, "https://codexery.com/amateur-radio-satellites/e/amateur-radio-satellites/uosat-1/": {"t": "UoSAT-1", "s": "First British amateur radio satellite, built at the University of Surrey."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy-space/e/astronomy-and-space/lunar-eclipse/": {"t": "Lunar eclipse", "s": "A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through Earth's shadow."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy/e/astronomy/exoplanet/": {"t": "Exoplanet", "s": "An exoplanet, also called an extrasolar planet, is any planet that exists beyond our Solar System.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomy/img/astronomy/exoplanet.webp", "c": "European Space Agency · CC BY-SA 3.0 igo"}, "https://codexery.com/omniscient-readers-viewpoint/e/world/earth/": {"t": "Earth", "s": "Kim Dokja's world, divided into scenario domes."}, "https://codexery.com/major-islands-and-archipelagos/e/major-islands-and-archipelagos/canary-islands/": {"t": "Canary Islands", "s": "The Fortunate Isles: a subtropical archipelago linking Africa, Europe, and the Americas."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy/e/astronomy/extraterrestrial-life/": {"t": "Extraterrestrial life", "s": "Hypothetical life originating from worlds beyond Earth."}, "https://codexery.com/optics-and-photonics/e/optics-and-photonics/photonics/": {"t": "Photonics", "s": "Branch of optics applying light in photon form across technologies."}, "https://codexery.com/scottish-inventions/e/scottish-inventions/gregorian-telescope/": {"t": "Gregorian telescope", "s": "Reflecting telescope designed by James Gregory in 1663."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy-space/e/astronomy-and-space/light-year/": {"t": "Light-year", "s": "A unit of distance, not time, used for astronomical scales."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/buckminster-fuller/": {"t": "Buckminster Fuller", "s": "Inventor of the geodesic dome and second World President of Mensa International."}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/isaac-newton/": {"t": "Isaac Newton", "s": "English polymath who formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation."}, "https://codexery.com/3d-printing/e/3d-printing/3d-printing/": {"t": "3D printing", "s": "Additive manufacturing builds objects layer by layer from digital models."}, "https://codexery.com/chemistry-materials/e/chemistry-and-materials/methane/": {"t": "Methane", "s": "Simplest alkane, main component of natural gas, potent greenhouse gas."}, "https://codexery.com/stars-of-centaurus/e/stars-of-centaurus/alpha-centauri/": {"t": "Alpha Centauri", "s": "Nearest star system to the Sun, with three stars."}, "https://codexery.com/exoplanets/e/exoplanets/proxima-centauri-b/": {"t": "Proxima Centauri b", "s": "The closest known exoplanet to Earth, orbiting within the habitable zone of a red dwarf star."}, "https://codexery.com/deserts-and-drylands/e/deserts-and-drylands/atacama-desert/": {"t": "Atacama Desert", "s": "One of the driest places on Earth, virtually devoid of life.", "i": "https://codexery.com/deserts-and-drylands/img/deserts-and-drylands/atacama-desert.webp", "c": "NASA · via Wikipedia: Atacama Desert · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy-space/e/astronomy-and-space/molecular-cloud/": {"t": "Molecular cloud", "s": "Dense interstellar clouds where stars are born."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-stellar-astronomy/e/planets-and-stellar-astronomy/red-giant/": {"t": "Red giant", "s": "A late-phase, luminous giant star with an inflated atmosphere."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-surveys/e/astronomical-surveys/bolocam-galactic-plane-survey/": {"t": "Bolocam Galactic Plane Survey", "s": "Millimeter continuum survey of the northern galactic plane."}, "https://codexery.com/meteorology/e/meteorology/water-vapor/": {"t": "Water vapor", "s": "The gaseous phase of water, a key greenhouse gas and component of Earth's hydrosphere."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-and-dwarf-planets/e/planets-and-dwarf-planets/dwarf-planet/": {"t": "Dwarf planet", "s": "A rounded solar orbiter that has not cleared its orbit."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-and-dwarf-planets/e/planets-and-dwarf-planets/ceres-dwarf-planet/": {"t": "Ceres (dwarf planet)", "s": "Dwarf planet in the main asteroid belt, first discovered asteroid."}, "https://codexery.com/notable-asteroids/e/notable-asteroids/asteroid-belt/": {"t": "Asteroid belt", "s": "A torus-shaped region between Mars and Jupiter containing many asteroids."}, "https://codexery.com/asteroid-surveys/e/asteroid-surveys/iras/": {"t": "IRAS", "s": "First space telescope to survey the entire infrared sky."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/james-clerk-maxwell-telescope/": {"t": "James Clerk Maxwell Telescope", "s": "Largest single-dish submillimetre telescope, at Mauna Kea."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/caltech-submillimeter-observatory/": {"t": "Caltech Submillimeter Observatory", "s": "Submillimeter telescope on Maunakea, decommissioned in 2024."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/submillimeter-array/": {"t": "Submillimeter Array", "s": "First purpose-built submillimeter interferometer, eight antennas on Mauna Kea."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-waves/e/electromagnetism-and-waves/radio-wave/": {"t": "Radio wave", "s": "Electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-radio-sources/e/astronomical-radio-sources/radio-galaxy/": {"t": "Radio galaxy", "s": "Galaxies with giant radio lobes powered by jets from active nuclei."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-stellar-astronomy/e/planets-and-stellar-astronomy/pulsar/": {"t": "Pulsar", "s": "Rotating neutron stars emitting regular electromagnetic pulses."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-radio-sources/e/astronomical-radio-sources/astrophysical-maser/": {"t": "Astrophysical maser", "s": "Naturally occurring stimulated emission in space"}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism/e/electromagnetism/maxwell-s-equations/": {"t": "Maxwell's equations", "s": "Foundation of classical electromagnetism and optics."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism/e/electromagnetism/electromagnetic-radiation/": {"t": "Electromagnetic radiation", "s": "Self-propagating wave of the electromagnetic field carrying energy."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-propagation/e/radio-propagation/ionosphere/": {"t": "Ionosphere", "s": "Ionized upper atmosphere enabling long-distance radio propagation."}, "https://codexery.com/luck/e/luck/serendipity/": {"t": "Serendipity", "s": "Active luck where chance and human action meet."}, "https://codexery.com/antenna-types/e/antenna-types/directional-antenna/": {"t": "Directional antenna", "s": "A directional antenna focuses radio waves in a specific direction."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-concepts-and-techniques/e/astronomical-concepts-and-techniques/sidereal-time/": {"t": "Sidereal time", "s": "Timekeeping system based on Earth's rotation relative to the fixed stars."}, "https://codexery.com/constellations/e/constellations/sagittarius/": {"t": "Sagittarius (constellation)", "s": "A zodiac constellation representing a centaur archer.", "i": "https://codexery.com/constellations/img/constellations/sagittarius.webp", "c": "John Flamsteed · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/amateur-radio/e/amateur-radio/amateur-radio-operator/": {"t": "Amateur radio operator", "s": "Licensed two-way communicators on amateur radio frequencies worldwide."}, "https://codexery.com/amateur-radio-people/e/amateur-radio-people/grote-reber/": {"t": "Grote Reber", "s": "Amateur radio operator who built the first parabolic radio telescope."}, "/e/astrophotography/active-surface/": {"t": "Active surface", "s": "Computer-controlled surface correction for large radio telescopes."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-radio-sources/e/astronomical-radio-sources/astronomical-radio-source/": {"t": "Astronomical radio source", "s": "Objects in space emitting strong radio waves from extreme processes."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-radiation/e/electromagnetism-and-radiation/radio-frequency/": {"t": "Radio frequency", "s": "Oscillation rate enabling radio wave radiation and technology."}, "https://codexery.com/antenna-types/e/antenna-types/parabolic-antenna/": {"t": "Parabolic antenna", "s": "A high-gain dish antenna that focuses radio waves into a narrow beam."}, "https://codexery.com/satellites/e/satellites/satellite/": {"t": "Satellite", "s": "Artificial objects placed into orbit around a celestial body."}, "https://codexery.com/communication-and-media/e/communication-and-media/television/": {"t": "Television", "s": "A telecommunication medium for transmitting moving images and sound."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism/e/electromagnetism/dipole/": {"t": "Dipole", "s": "Electromagnetic phenomenon with electric and magnetic forms."}, "https://codexery.com/antenna-types/e/antenna-types/reflector-antenna/": {"t": "Reflector (antenna)", "s": "Reflects or redirects electromagnetic waves in antenna systems."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-waves/e/electromagnetism-and-waves/frequency/": {"t": "Frequency", "s": "Frequency measures repeating events per unit time."}, "https://codexery.com/stars-and-stellar-objects/e/stars-and-stellar-objects/constellation/": {"t": "Constellation", "s": "Patterns in the sky that guide stories and navigation."}, "https://codexery.com/major-wars/e/major-wars/second-world-war/": {"t": "Second World War", "s": "Global conflict between Allies and Axis, deadliest in history."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-telescopes/e/radio-telescopes/square-kilometre-array/": {"t": "Square Kilometre Array", "s": "A next-generation radio telescope spanning two continents."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-waves/e/electromagnetism-and-waves/noise/": {"t": "Noise", "s": "Unwanted sound measured in decibels, regulated for health and environment."}, "/e/astrophotography/astronomical-survey/": {"t": "Astronomical survey", "s": "A general map or image of the sky lacking a specific target."}, "https://codexery.com/named-stars/e/named-stars/arcturus/": {"t": "Arcturus", "s": "Guardian of the Bear, fourth-brightest star in the night sky."}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/corot/": {"t": "CoRoT", "s": "First space telescope dedicated to detecting transiting exoplanets."}, "https://codexery.com/exoplanets/e/exoplanets/hot-jupiters/": {"t": "Hot Jupiters", "s": "Gas giants orbiting extremely close to their host stars.", "i": "https://codexery.com/exoplanets/img/exoplanets/hot-jupiters.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Hot Jupiter · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/earth/e/earth/earth-s-rotation/": {"t": "Earth's rotation", "s": "Earth spins eastward, slowing over time but recently accelerating."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-and-dwarf-planets/e/planets-and-dwarf-planets/mars/": {"t": "Mars", "s": "The fourth planet from the Sun, a desert world with polar ice caps."}, "https://codexery.com/derelict-landers/e/derelict-landers/spirit-rover/": {"t": "Spirit (rover)", "s": "Mars rover that operated over twenty times longer than planned."}, "https://codexery.com/lines-hemispheres/e/lines-and-hemispheres/northern-hemisphere/": {"t": "Northern Hemisphere", "s": "The Northern Hemisphere contains most of the world's continents and major landmasses.", "i": "https://codexery.com/lines-hemispheres/img/lines-and-hemispheres/northern-hemisphere.webp", "c": "Sean Baker ( Marvin01 | talk ) · via Wikipedia: Northern Hemisphere · CC BY 2.0"}, "https://codexery.com/lines-hemispheres/e/lines-and-hemispheres/celestial-pole/": {"t": "Celestial pole", "s": "Fixed points in the sky around which all stars appear to rotate."}, "https://codexery.com/named-stars/e/named-stars/polaris/": {"t": "Polaris", "s": "The current northern pole star and closest Cepheid variable."}, "https://codexery.com/lines-hemispheres/e/lines-and-hemispheres/southern-hemisphere/": {"t": "Southern Hemisphere", "s": "The Southern Hemisphere is Earth's southern half, mostly ocean."}, "https://codexery.com/stars-of-octans/e/stars-of-octans/sigma-octantis/": {"t": "Sigma Octantis", "s": "The faint southern pole star of Octans."}, "https://codexery.com/lines-hemispheres/e/lines-and-hemispheres/latitude/": {"t": "Latitude", "s": "Latitude specifies north-south position on Earth or celestial bodies.", "i": "https://codexery.com/lines-hemispheres/img/lines-and-hemispheres/latitude.webp", "c": "source: Pearson Scott Foresman, donated to the Wikimedia Foundation\nsvg conversion: Gregors\nColor: Jahobr · via Wikipedia: Latitude · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/science-measurement/e/science-and-measurement/microscope/": {"t": "Microscope", "s": "Instrument for viewing objects invisible to the naked eye.", "i": "https://codexery.com/science-measurement/img/science-and-measurement/microscope.webp", "c": "Chad Anderson, staff photographer for SFO Museum · CC BY-SA 2.0"}, "/e/astrophotography/far-infrared-astronomy/": {"t": "Far-infrared astronomy", "s": "Studies cold matter via far-infrared radiation from space."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-radiation/e/electromagnetism-and-radiation/terahertz-radiation/": {"t": "Terahertz radiation", "s": "Electromagnetic radiation bridging microwaves and infrared, with limited atmospheric range."}, "https://codexery.com/radio-spectrum/e/radio-spectrum/microwave/": {"t": "Microwave", "s": "Electromagnetic radiation between radio waves and infrared, used widely in technology."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy/e/astronomy/dark-nebula/": {"t": "Dark nebula", "s": "Dark patches in the Milky Way that block visible light", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomy/img/astronomy/dark-nebula.webp", "c": "Thedarksideobservatory · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy-space/e/astronomy-and-space/interstellar-medium/": {"t": "Interstellar medium", "s": "Matter and radiation between star systems in a galaxy."}, "https://codexery.com/stars-and-stellar-objects/e/stars-and-stellar-objects/active-galactic-nucleus/": {"t": "Active galactic nucleus", "s": "Compact region at a galaxy's center emitting non-stellar radiation, powered by accretion onto a supermassive black hole."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-radio-sources/e/astronomical-radio-sources/cosmic-microwave-background/": {"t": "Cosmic microwave background", "s": "Relic radiation from the early universe."}, "https://codexery.com/galaxy-clusters-and-groups/e/galaxy-clusters-and-groups/intracluster-medium/": {"t": "Intracluster medium", "s": "Superheated plasma permeating galaxy clusters, emitting strong X-rays."}, "https://codexery.com/black-holes/e/black-holes/supermassive-black-hole/": {"t": "Supermassive black hole", "s": "Supermassive black holes anchor the centers of most large galaxies.", "i": "https://codexery.com/black-holes/img/black-holes/supermassive-black-hole.webp", "c": "Event Horizon Telescope · via Wikipedia: Supermassive black hole · CC BY 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/black-holes/e/black-holes/gravitational-wave/": {"t": "Gravitational wave", "s": "Ripples in spacetime carrying energy at light speed."}, "https://codexery.com/particle-and-nuclear-physics/e/particle-and-nuclear-physics/neutrino/": {"t": "Neutrino", "s": "An elusive elementary particle that rarely interacts with matter."}, "https://codexery.com/crystallography/e/crystallography/absorption-band/": {"t": "Absorption band", "s": "A range of wavelengths characteristic of a quantum transition in a substance.", "i": "https://codexery.com/crystallography/img/crystallography/absorption-band.webp", "c": "Unknown author · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/lines-hemispheres/e/lines-and-hemispheres/south-pole/": {"t": "South Pole", "s": "Southernmost point on Earth, marked by shifting ice and historic expeditions."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy-space/e/astronomy-and-space/kuiper-belt/": {"t": "Kuiper belt", "s": "A circumstellar disc of icy bodies beyond Neptune."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-and-dwarf-planets/e/planets-and-dwarf-planets/sedna-dwarf-planet/": {"t": "Sedna (dwarf planet)", "s": "A distant dwarf planet with the longest known orbital period."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-waves/e/electromagnetism-and-waves/reflection-physics/": {"t": "Reflection (physics)", "s": "Wavefront returns into the original medium upon striking an interface."}, "https://codexery.com/band-of-brothers/e/world/holland-netherlands/": {"t": "Netherlands", "s": "Holland: Market Garden and 'the Island'."}, "https://codexery.com/organisations-based-in-rome/e/organisations-based-in-rome/accademia-dei-lincei/": {"t": "Accademia dei Lincei", "s": "Italian academy symbolizing scientific acuity through the lynx."}, "https://codexery.com/languages/e/languages/latin/": {"t": "Latin", "s": "A classical language of the Italic branch, Latin evolved into the Romance languages and remained a key scholarly tongue into the early 19th century."}, "https://codexery.com/optics-and-photonics/e/optics-and-photonics/spherical-aberration/": {"t": "Spherical aberration", "s": "Spherical aberration degrades image quality in spherical optical systems."}, "https://codexery.com/telescope-types/e/telescope-types/newtonian-telescope/": {"t": "Newtonian telescope", "s": "The earliest known functional reflecting telescope, invented by Isaac Newton."}, "https://codexery.com/amateur-astronomy/e/amateur-astronomy/john-dobson-amateur-astronomer/": {"t": "John Dobson (amateur astronomer)", "s": "Amateur astronomer who created the portable Dobsonian telescope.", "i": "https://codexery.com/amateur-astronomy/img/amateur-astronomy/john-dobson-amateur-astronomer.webp", "c": "Graham Robson · CC BY-SA 2.0"}, "https://codexery.com/telescope-types/e/telescope-types/dobsonian-telescope/": {"t": "Dobsonian telescope", "s": "A large-aperture Newtonian reflector on a simple altazimuth mount."}, "https://codexery.com/microscope-components/e/microscope-components/achromatic-lens/": {"t": "Achromatic lens", "s": "Lens corrected for chromatic and spherical aberration."}, "https://codexery.com/crime-and-deviance/e/crime-and-deviance/surveillance/": {"t": "Surveillance", "s": "Systematic observation for information gathering, influence, or control."}, "https://codexery.com/traditional-alternative-medicine/e/traditional-and-alternative-medicine/alternative-medicine/": {"t": "Alternative medicine", "s": "Practices claiming healing effects without scientific evidence or plausibility.", "i": "https://codexery.com/traditional-alternative-medicine/img/traditional-and-alternative-medicine/alternative-medicine.webp", "c": "FBenjr123 · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/electrical-systems/e/electrical-systems/electric-power-transmission/": {"t": "Electric power transmission", "s": "Bulk movement of electrical energy from generation to substations."}, "https://codexery.com/camera-image-sensors/e/camera-image-sensors/staring-array/": {"t": "Staring array", "s": "A focal-plane array that images without scanning, used widely in infrared applications."}, "https://codexery.com/optics-and-color/e/optics-and-color/optics/": {"t": "Optics", "s": "Branch of physics studying light and electromagnetic radiation.", "i": "https://codexery.com/optics-and-color/img/optics-and-color/optics.webp", "c": "OpticalSystem · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-radiation/e/electromagnetism-and-radiation/radiometry/": {"t": "Radiometry", "s": "Techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation power distribution."}, "https://codexery.com/thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics/e/thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics/temperature/": {"t": "Temperature", "s": "Temperature measures average particle kinetic energy and thermal energy distribution."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-radiation/e/electromagnetism-and-radiation/ultraviolet/": {"t": "Ultraviolet", "s": "Electromagnetic radiation beyond violet, with both harmful and beneficial effects."}, "/e/astrophotography/x-ray-astronomy/": {"t": "X-ray astronomy", "s": "Observing the universe in X-rays from above Earth's atmosphere."}, "https://codexery.com/human-anatomy/e/human-anatomy/human-eye/": {"t": "Human eye", "s": "The human eye is a sensory organ in the visual system that reacts to visible light allowing eyesight."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy/e/astronomy/galaxy-formation-and-evolution/": {"t": "Galaxy formation and evolution", "s": "Study of galaxy origins, structure, and change over cosmic time."}, "https://codexery.com/stellar-evolution/e/stellar-evolution/white-dwarf/": {"t": "White dwarf", "s": "A compact star supported by electron degeneracy pressure."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy-space/e/astronomy-and-space/main-sequence/": {"t": "Main sequence", "s": "Stars spend most of their lives on the main sequence."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-stellar-astronomy/e/planets-and-stellar-astronomy/stellar-evolution/": {"t": "Stellar evolution", "s": "Stars evolve from gas clouds to white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes."}, "https://codexery.com/missions-to-the-sun/e/missions-to-the-sun/solar-dynamics-observatory/": {"t": "Solar Dynamics Observatory", "s": "NASA mission observing the Sun since 2010."}, "https://codexery.com/missions-to-the-sun/e/missions-to-the-sun/solar-and-heliospheric-observatory/": {"t": "Solar and Heliospheric Observatory", "s": "ESA-NASA solar observatory that discovered over 5,000 comets."}, "https://codexery.com/crewed-spacecraft-and-space-stations/e/crewed-spacecraft-and-space-stations/space-shuttle/": {"t": "Space Shuttle", "s": "Partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system."}, "https://codexery.com/african-american-inventors/e/african-american-inventors/george-robert-carruthers/": {"t": "George Robert Carruthers", "s": "Inventor of the Apollo 16 far ultraviolet camera/spectrograph.", "i": "https://codexery.com/african-american-inventors/img/african-american-inventors/george-robert-carruthers.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: George Robert Carruthers · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/people-associated-with-astronomical/e/people-associated-with-astronomical-catalogues/charles-stuart-bowyer/": {"t": "Charles Stuart Bowyer", "s": "American astronomer who pioneered extreme ultraviolet astronomy."}, "https://codexery.com/geometry-and-shapes/e/geometry-and-shapes/three-dimensional-space/": {"t": "Three-dimensional space", "s": "Three coordinates define a point in space."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-waves/e/electromagnetism-and-waves/magnetic-field/": {"t": "Magnetic field", "s": "A vector field quantifying magnetic influence at a given location."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-concepts-and-techniques/e/astronomical-concepts-and-techniques/space-weather/": {"t": "Space weather", "s": "Study of solar wind effects on the Solar System."}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/synoptic-optical-long-term-investigations-of-the-sun/": {"t": "Synoptic Optical Long-term Investigations of the Sun", "s": "A 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"https://codexery.com/astronomers-and-astrophysicists/e/astronomers-and-astrophysicists/riccardo-giacconi/": {"t": "Riccardo Giacconi", "s": "Italian-American astrophysicist who pioneered X-ray astronomy.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomers-and-astrophysicists/img/astronomers-and-astrophysicists/riccardo-giacconi.webp", "c": "NASA/MSFC · via Wikipedia: Riccardo Giacconi · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/nippon-columbia-artists/e/nippon-columbia-artists/field-of-view/": {"t": "Field of View", "s": "Japanese pop rock band formed in 1994."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-stellar-astronomy/e/planets-and-stellar-astronomy/star-system/": {"t": "Star system", "s": "Gravitationally bound groups of stars, from binaries to complex multiples."}, "https://codexery.com/space-telescopes/e/space-telescopes/chandra-x-ray-observatory/": {"t": "Chandra X-ray Observatory", "s": "Flagship X-ray telescope launched in 1999, still operating."}, "https://codexery.com/science-measurement/e/science-and-measurement/optical-microscope/": {"t": "Optical microscope", "s": "Uses visible light and lenses to magnify small objects.", "i": "https://codexery.com/science-measurement/img/science-and-measurement/optical-microscope.webp", "c": "Unknown author · Public domain"}, "https://codexery.com/computing-software/e/computing-and-software/pixel/": {"t": "Pixel", "s": "Smallest addressable element of a raster image."}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/spotting-scope/": {"t": "Spotting scope", "s": "A compact portable telescope for high-magnification observation of distant objects."}, "https://codexery.com/telescope-types/e/telescope-types/maksutov-telescope/": {"t": "Maksutov telescope", "s": "Catadioptric design using a meniscus corrector to correct aberrations."}, "https://codexery.com/communication-and-media/e/communication-and-media/social-media/": {"t": "Social media", "s": "Interactive platforms for 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{"t": "Viking 2", "s": "American Mars lander that operated for 1,281 sols and searched for life."}, "https://codexery.com/extraterrestrial-orbiters/e/extraterrestrial-orbiters/galileo-spacecraft/": {"t": "Galileo (spacecraft)", "s": "First spacecraft to orbit an outer planet.", "i": "https://codexery.com/extraterrestrial-orbiters/img/extraterrestrial-orbiters/galileo-spacecraft.webp", "c": "NASA on The Commons · No restrictions"}, "https://codexery.com/jaxa/e/jaxa/ikaros/": {"t": "IKAROS", "s": "First spacecraft to demonstrate solar sail propulsion in interplanetary space."}, "https://codexery.com/military-space-program-of-the-united/e/military-space-program-of-the-united-states/orbital-express/": {"t": "Orbital Express", "s": "DARPA-led mission demonstrating autonomous satellite servicing in orbit.", "i": "https://codexery.com/military-space-program-of-the-united/img/military-space-program-of-the-united-states/orbital-express.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Orbital Express · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/astrobiology-space-missions/e/astrobiology-space-missions/curiosity-rover/": {"t": "Curiosity (rover)", "s": "Mars rover exploring Gale crater and Mount Sharp since 2012."}, "https://codexery.com/the-martian/e/world/jet-propulsion-laboratory/": {"t": "Jet Propulsion Laboratory", "s": "NASA's robotic-spacecraft lab, where Bruce Ng and Rich Purnell work."}, "https://codexery.com/derelict-landers/e/derelict-landers/opportunity-rover/": {"t": "Opportunity (rover)", "s": "A robotic rover that explored Mars from 2004 to 2018, far exceeding its planned lifespan."}, "https://codexery.com/space-telescopes/e/space-telescopes/arkyd-100/": {"t": "Arkyd-100", "s": "Planned low-cost space telescope for asteroid prospecting."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-radiation/e/electromagnetism-and-radiation/visible-spectrum/": {"t": "Visible spectrum", "s": "The range of electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye."}, "https://codexery.com/geometry-and-topology/e/geometry-and-topology/centroid/": {"t": "Centroid", "s": "Geometric center of a figure; mean position of all points."}, "/e/astrophotography/strehl-ratio/": {"t": "Strehl ratio", "s": "A measure of optical quality relative to a perfect system.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astrophotography/img/astrophotography/strehl-ratio.webp", "c": "ESO · CC BY 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/fifa-world-cup/e/honours/france/": {"t": "France", "s": "A global centre of art, science, cuisine and philosophy."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomers-and-astrophysicists/e/astronomers-and-astrophysicists/neil-degrasse-tyson/": {"t": "Neil deGrasse Tyson", "s": "American astrophysicist and director of the Hayden Planetarium.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomers-and-astrophysicists/img/astronomers-and-astrophysicists/neil-degrasse-tyson.webp", "c": "Maryland GovPics · via Wikipedia: Neil deGrasse Tyson · CC BY 2.0"}, "https://codexery.com/nielsen-ratings-winners/e/nielsen-ratings-winners/60-minutes/": {"t": "60 Minutes", "s": "American news magazine debuting in 1968 on CBS."}, "https://codexery.com/film-history-milestones/e/film-history-and-milestones/documentary-film/": {"t": "Documentary film", "s": "Nonfiction film documenting reality for instruction or record."}, "https://codexery.com/cosmic-mysteries/e/cosmic-mysteries/dark-energy/": {"t": "Dark energy", "s": "The mysterious force accelerating the universe's expansion"}, "https://codexery.com/historical-figures/e/notable/carl-sagan/": {"t": "Carl Sagan", "s": "American astronomer and influential science communicator."}, "https://codexery.com/microprocessors/e/microprocessors/microprocessor/": {"t": "Microprocessor", "s": "A single-chip CPU that revolutionized computing through integration.", "i": "https://codexery.com/microprocessors/img/microprocessors/microprocessor.webp", "c": "Piotr433 · CC0"}, "/e/astrophotography/blink-comparator/": {"t": "Blink comparator", "s": "A device for blinking between sky photos to spot changes."}, "https://codexery.com/manufacturing-and-materials/e/manufacturing-and-materials/photographic-film/": {"t": "Photographic film", "s": "Light-sensitive medium for capturing photographic images."}, "/e/astrophotography/dorpat-great-refractor/": {"t": "Dorpat Great Refractor", "s": "First modern achromatic great refractor with German equatorial mount."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-catalogues/e/astronomical-catalogues/carte-du-ciel/": {"t": "Carte du Ciel", "s": "Ambitious but unfinished international star-charting project."}, "https://codexery.com/telescope-types/e/telescope-types/catadioptric-system/": {"t": "Catadioptric system", "s": "Catadioptric systems combine lenses and mirrors for compact, corrected optics."}, "https://codexery.com/amateur-astronomy/e/amateur-astronomy/amateur-telescope-making/": {"t": "Amateur Telescope Making", "s": "Three books that launched the amateur telescope making movement."}, "https://codexery.com/microscope-components/e/microscope-components/apochromat/": {"t": "Apochromat", "s": "Lens correcting three colors for minimal chromatic aberration."}, "https://codexery.com/telescope-types/e/telescope-types/cassegrain-reflector/": {"t": "Cassegrain reflector", "s": "Folded optical path with concave primary and convex secondary mirrors."}, "https://codexery.com/materials/e/materials/borosilicate-glass/": {"t": "Borosilicate glass", "s": "A type of glass with silica and boron trioxide, known for low thermal expansion and high resistance to thermal shock."}, "https://codexery.com/optics-and-color/e/optics-and-color/focal-length/": {"t": "Focal length", "s": "Measure of how strongly an optical system bends light.", "i": "https://codexery.com/optics-and-color/img/optics-and-color/focal-length.webp", "c": "cmglee, chensiyuan · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/computing-digital/e/computing-and-digital/computer-simulation/": {"t": "Computer 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engage communities in astronomy."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomical-catalogues/e/astronomical-catalogues/durchmusterung/": {"t": "Durchmusterung", "s": "Systematic star survey cataloguing 342,198 stars down to magnitude 9.5."}, "https://codexery.com/observatories-of-europe/e/observatories-of-europe/marseille-observatory/": {"t": "Marseille Observatory", "s": "Historic French observatory, home to Stephan's Quintet and Foucault's telescope."}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-waves/e/electromagnetism-and-waves/gamma-ray/": {"t": "Gamma ray", "s": "Penetrating electromagnetic radiation from nuclear decay and cosmic events."}, "https://codexery.com/stars-and-stellar-phenomena/e/stars-and-stellar-phenomena/crab-pulsar/": {"t": "Crab Pulsar", "s": "A young neutron star at the heart of the Crab Nebula, discovered in 1968 and the first pulsar linked to a supernova remnant."}, "https://codexery.com/classical-mechanics-and-dynamics/e/classical-mechanics-and-dynamics/newton-s-law-of-universal-gravitation/": {"t": "Newton's law of universal gravitation", "s": "Gravity as a universal force between all masses."}, "https://codexery.com/cosmology-concepts/e/cosmology-concepts/expansion-of-the-universe/": {"t": "Expansion of the universe", "s": "The increase in distance between gravitationally unbound parts of the universe."}, "https://codexery.com/deserts-and-drylands/e/deserts-and-drylands/sonoran-desert/": {"t": "Sonoran Desert", "s": "North America's most tropical desert, the only wild home of the saguaro cactus.", "i": "https://codexery.com/deserts-and-drylands/img/deserts-and-drylands/sonoran-desert.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Sonoran Desert · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/us-cities/e/us-cities/tucson-arizona/": {"t": "Tucson, Arizona", "s": "Second-largest city in Arizona, founded as a Spanish presidio in 1775."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy/e/astronomy/cosmological-constant/": {"t": "Cosmological constant", "s": "A coefficient in Einstein's equations explaining cosmic acceleration."}, "https://codexery.com/cosmology-concepts/e/cosmology-concepts/baryon-acoustic-oscillations/": {"t": "Baryon acoustic oscillations", "s": "Standard ruler from early universe sound waves."}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/bok-telescope/": {"t": "Bok Telescope", "s": "Largest telescope operated solely by Steward Observatory."}, "https://codexery.com/messier-objects/e/messier-objects/andromeda-galaxy/": {"t": "Andromeda Galaxy", "s": "Nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way."}, "https://codexery.com/cosmology-concepts/e/cosmology-concepts/lambda-cdm-model/": {"t": "Lambda-CDM model", "s": "Standard cosmological model of dark energy and cold dark matter."}, "https://codexery.com/19th-century-german-inventors/e/19th-century-german-inventors/ernst-abbe/": {"t": "Ernst Abbe", "s": "German businessman, optical engineer, physicist, and social reformer; co-owner of Carl Zeiss AG.", "i": "https://codexery.com/19th-century-german-inventors/img/19th-century-german-inventors/ernst-abbe.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Ernst Abbe · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/microscopes/e/microscopes/4pi-microscope/": {"t": "4Pi microscope", "s": "Fluorescence microscope using two opposing lenses for enhanced axial resolution."}, "https://codexery.com/crystallography/e/crystallography/ewald-s-sphere/": {"t": "Ewald's sphere", "s": "Geometric construction relating wavevectors and reciprocal lattice in diffraction."}, "https://codexery.com/telescope-types/e/telescope-types/heliometer/": {"t": "Heliometer", "s": "A telescope that splits its lens to measure angular distances."}, "/e/astrophotography/comet-seeker/": {"t": "Comet seeker", "s": "A short-focal-length telescope for comet hunting."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-stellar-astronomy/e/planets-and-stellar-astronomy/parallax/": {"t": "Parallax", "s": "Parallax measures distance through apparent shift in viewpoint."}, "https://codexery.com/crusader-kings/e/world/paris/": {"t": "Paris", "s": "Capetian capital on the Seine."}, "https://codexery.com/irish-inventors/e/irish-inventors/thomas-grubb/": {"t": "Thomas Grubb", "s": "Irish optician and telescope maker of the Victorian era."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomy/e/astronomy/halley-s-comet/": {"t": "Halley's Comet", "s": "First comet recognized as periodic, observed for over two millennia.", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomy/img/astronomy/halley-s-comet.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Halley's Comet · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/telescope-types/e/telescope-types/aerial-telescope/": {"t": "Aerial telescope", "s": "A tubeless refracting telescope using a string to align objective and eyepiece."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomers-and-cosmologists/e/astronomers-and-cosmologists/johann-gottfried-galle/": {"t": "Johann Gottfried Galle", "s": "German astronomer who first identified Neptune"}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/newall-telescope/": {"t": "Newall Telescope", "s": "Once the world's largest refractor, now used for education."}, "https://codexery.com/classical-mechanics-and-dynamics/e/classical-mechanics-and-dynamics/rotation/": {"t": "Rotation", "s": "Rotational motion leaves at least one point unchanged."}, "https://codexery.com/optics-and-color/e/optics-and-color/focus-optics/": {"t": "Focus (optics)", "s": "Point where light rays converge in optical systems.", "i": "https://codexery.com/optics-and-color/img/optics-and-color/focus-optics.webp", "c": "Ermell · CC BY-SA 4.0"}, "https://codexery.com/electromagnetism-and-waves/e/electromagnetism-and-waves/refraction/": {"t": "Refraction", "s": "Refraction redirects waves when they change speed between media."}, "https://codexery.com/astronomers-and-cosmologists/e/astronomers-and-cosmologists/johannes-kepler/": {"t": "Johannes Kepler", "s": "German polymath and father of modern astronomy", "i": "https://codexery.com/astronomers-and-cosmologists/img/astronomers-and-cosmologists/johannes-kepler.webp", "c": "via Wikipedia: Johannes Kepler · see source"}, "https://codexery.com/scientists-and-mathematicians/e/scientists-and-mathematicians/christiaan-huygens/": {"t": "Christiaan Huygens", "s": "Dutch polymath who advanced optics, mechanics, and astronomy."}, "https://codexery.com/scientists-and-mathematicians/e/scientists-and-mathematicians/l-on-foucault/": {"t": "Léon Foucault", "s": "The physicist who proved Earth rotates with a pendulum"}, "https://codexery.com/electrical-systems/e/electrical-systems/electric-light/": {"t": "Electric light", "s": "An electrical device producing light from electricity."}, "https://codexery.com/british-inventors/e/british-inventors/horace-dall/": {"t": "Horace Dall", "s": "English amateur astronomer and optical inventor."}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/william-herschel-telescope/": {"t": "William Herschel Telescope", "s": "Third largest optical telescope at its 1987 completion."}, "https://codexery.com/planets-stellar-astronomy/e/planets-and-stellar-astronomy/star-formation/": {"t": "Star formation", "s": "Process by which dense molecular cloud regions collapse into stars."}, "https://codexery.com/planetary-nebulae/e/planetary-nebulae/planetary-nebula/": {"t": "Planetary nebula", "s": "Expanding shells of ionized gas from dying intermediate-mass stars."}, "https://codexery.com/supernova-remnants/e/supernova-remnants/supernova-remnant/": {"t": "Supernova remnant", "s": "Expanding structures from stellar explosions, key sources of cosmic rays."}, "https://codexery.com/spiral-galaxies/e/spiral-galaxies/corotation-circle/": {"t": "Corotation circle", "s": "Circle where stars and spiral arms move at same speed."}, "https://codexery.com/star-clusters/e/star-clusters/ob-association/": {"t": "OB association", "s": "Loose, unbound groups of young, massive O and B 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{"t": "NGC 2261", "s": "A variable nebula in Monoceros, illuminated by an unseen star."}, "/e/astrophotography/diffraction-limited-system/": {"t": "Diffraction-limited system", "s": "The maximum resolution achievable by an ideal optical system due to diffraction."}, "https://codexery.com/optical-telescopes/e/optical-telescopes/c-donald-shane-telescope/": {"t": "C. Donald Shane telescope", "s": "Second-largest optical telescope in the world at its 1959 commissioning."}, "https://codexery.com/exoplanets/e/exoplanets/the-transit-method/": {"t": "The transit method", "s": "Detects exoplanets by measuring starlight dimming during transit."}, "https://codexery.com/former-spanish-colonies/e/former-spanish-colonies/arizona/": {"t": "Arizona", "s": "Former Spanish colony, now a Southwestern U.S. state."}, "https://codexery.com/computing-software/e/computing-and-software/personal-computer/": {"t": "Personal computer", "s": "The definitive guide to personal computers, from early microcomputers to modern Wintel dominance."}, "https://codexery.com/observatories-of-asia-africa-and-oceania/e/observatories-of-asia-africa-and-oceania/wide-angle-search-for-planets/": {"t": "Wide Angle Search for Planets", "s": "Robotic observatories searching for exoplanets via transit photometry."}}