Contio

Did You Know?

• Cicero's letters to Atticus include references to the contio (e.g., Att. 7.8.5).
• Sallust's historiographic works describe some contio speeches on significant topics.
• Cicero's De Oratore contains theoretical remarks on addressing the contio (e.g., De Oratore 2.333–240).

Function in Roman politics

The contio is thought to have originated under the Roman monarchy, before voting assemblies existed, as only the king could summon it and speak. During the Republic and Empire, every magistrate and tribune of the people gained the right to call a contio and address the crowd or invite others to speak on a chosen topic. In theory, a contio could be held any day, but it was usually convened after a Senate meeting or when a new legislative bill (rogatio) was proposed.

After a Senate meeting, the presiding magistrate would decide who spoke, either addressing the crowd himself or inviting other senators; opponents of the adopted resolutions often held their own contio later to present a different view. Since Senate meetings were closed, contiones were a key way for citizens to learn about state affairs. In the legislative process, once a rogatio was endorsed by the Senate, a mandatory notice period preceded the assembly vote, during which proposers held contiones to build public support and encourage attendance.

Opponents might also hold contiones to rally opposing votes. On election day, a contio presented the candidate list, explained the electoral process, and featured final campaign speeches.

The audience

Every Roman citizen had the right to attend contiones, and the crowd was seen as representing the populus, often addressed as such or as quirites. The audience is generally thought to have consisted mainly of city residents, who had easy access to the voting assemblies and were more politically engaged. Two theories exist about the social makeup of the crowd. One holds that the audience was mostly lower-class locals, such as shopkeepers near the forum who sometimes closed their businesses to attend, joined by others escaping cramped housing. This group, sometimes called the plebs contionalis, would have been most interested in measures like grain distributions. The other theory contends that the crowd was mainly well-to-do, high-class citizens.

Rhetoric

Speeches at the contio shared several characteristics. Speakers tried to instill a sense of responsibility for the common good and flattered the audience to increase sympathy. They focused on building their own reputation as defenders of popular interests while attacking opponents. Speakers presented themselves as teachers or guides, using revelatory rhetoric marked by verbs like 'teaching', 'warning', 'demonstrating', and 'explaining'. They employed a popularis-style rhetoric with emotional appeals, such as evoking fear or resentment, and a vehement delivery involving varied tone, facial expressions, and large gestures. Short, sharp phrases and rhetorical questions were used to prompt the crowd to shout or cheer in support.

Military contiones

A contio could also be convened in a military context, where a commander summoned his troops to hear a speech. Under the monarchy, only the king had this right; during the Republic, all military commanders could summon contiones, and the commander was usually the only speaker. Such assemblies were held at the start of a campaign to present the commander and campaign objectives, after a successful battle to reward outstanding soldiers, when a riot occurred to announce punishments, to share orders and political affairs, or right before a battle to motivate the troops.